面孔搜索不对称性的争议:快乐优势与愤怒优势
Controversy over Facial Search Asymmetry: The Happiness Advantage and the Anger Advantage
DOI: 10.12677/ASS.2024.133195, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 28  浏览: 52 
作者: 姜晓凡:西南大学心理学部,重庆
关键词: 面孔搜索不对称行为研究ERPHSEASE影响因素Facial Search Asymmetry Behavioral Research ERP HSE ASE Influencing Factors
摘要: 人类利用情绪作为传递社会信息的一种方式,正性情绪意味着舒适安全,负性情绪则代表着威胁,而对于不同情绪的察觉速度或搜索速度却存在或大或小的差异,如情绪A和情绪B互为目标和分心物时,对两种目标的搜索速度存在显著差异,这被称为情绪搜索不对称效应。当前,众多学者已经对此进行了大量的研究,但无论是行为还是脑机制层面的探究,总是存在一些具有争议的结果。文章对部分行为研究与脑机制研究进行简短介绍,并对这些互斥结果产生的原因进行了讨论,认为不同研究间各种各样的额外变量很可能是这些不一致的不对称性结论产生的原因。
Abstract: Humans use emotions as a way to convey social information, with positive emotions meaning comfort and safety, and negative emotions representing threat. However, there are differences, large or small, in the detection or search speed for different emotions. For example, when emo-tions A and B are both targets and distractors, there is a significant difference in search speed for the two targets, known as the emotional search asymmetry effect. Currently, numerous scholars have conducted extensive research on this, but there are always some controversial results, whether it is at the behavioral or brain mechanism level. This article briefly introduces some behavioral and brain mechanism research and discusses the reasons for the conflicting results, suggesting that various additional variables between different types of research may be the cause of these inconsistent conclusions of asymmetry.
文章引用:姜晓凡. 面孔搜索不对称性的争议:快乐优势与愤怒优势[J]. 社会科学前沿, 2024, 13(3): 128-134. https://doi.org/10.12677/ASS.2024.133195

1. 引言

人类对于情绪刺激的快速识别和加工的能力来自于漫长的进化过程,在面对与生存密切相关的情境时,大脑进化而来的神经机制要求我们必须时刻保持警惕以应对可能出现的各种生存威胁。正性情绪意味着舒适安全,负性情绪则代表着威胁。情绪会影响我们的认知和行为,有些是短暂的影响,有些则是长远的影响。也许正是由于情绪与生存息息相关,与其他刺激相比,情绪刺激总是能够更加容易地抓住我们的注意,而对情绪的有效加工很大程度上可有利于人类的生存与发展。

人是一种社会性动物,面孔是人在社交活动中最具生物性和社会性意义的刺激。内部情绪状态可以通过面部表情来表现,因为面部光滑无毛,同时人类进化成直立行走,面部可以完全暴露在他人的视野范围内,使得面部适合作为情绪交流的途径。那么,情绪面孔作为人类社交活动中频繁出现的一种视觉刺激,不同类型的情绪面孔之间是否也存在注意偏向呢?事实证明,对不同情绪面孔的探测速度确有显著差异,这种差异被称为面孔搜索的不对称性。

时至今日,关于面孔搜索不对称性的研究已不在少数,但结果仍存在争议。

2. 行为层面的探究

搜索不对称性最初来源于视知觉的研究,一般采用目标——分心物的视觉搜索范式:在一项搜索任务中有两类刺激,A与B互为目标与干扰物,被试在干扰物中寻找目标刻激,搜索目标A时与搜索目标B的速度不同。情绪面孔搜索不对称性是指在对多个面孔进行搜索时,对一种表情(如愤怒)搜索的速度要明显快于另一种表情(如开心)。

Hansen, C.H.和Hansen, R.D. [1] 发现,当负性情绪面孔(如愤怒)作为目标,正性情绪面孔(如快乐)或中性情绪面孔作为分心物时,其搜索速度要比正性情绪面孔作为目标而负性情绪面孔或中性情绪面孔作为分心物时要快,即出现负性情绪面孔优势效应(Angry Superiority Effect, ASE)。此后很多研究者在实验中得出了类似的结果,均在不同程度上发现负性情绪面孔的这一优势效应 [2] [3] [4] [5] 。然而,这并不意味着所有研究结果都指向这一种结论。一些研究得出了与此结果相反的结论,即当正性情绪面孔作为目标,负性情绪面孔或中性情绪面孔作为分心物时,其搜索速度要比负性情绪面孔作为目标而正性情绪面孔或中性情绪面孔作为分心物时要快,即出现正性情绪面孔优势效应(Happy Superiority Effect, HSE) [6] [7] [8] 。这些结果显示出人们在对情绪面孔搜索时出现了不同的搜索不对称性,这两种相反的结果促使研究者更深入地探究这一现象背后的脑加工机制。

3. 脑机制层面的探究

Calvo, M.G.和Beltran, D. [9] 在对愤怒、恐惧、悲伤、快乐和中性面部表情的行为辨别分类任务中记录ERP数据,揭示出面部表情加工的不同阶段,依时间顺序概括出五种主要的ERP成分:P1 (100~130 ms)、N170 (150~180 ms)、EPN (Early Posterior Negativity,早期后负性,200~320 ms)、P3b (350~450 ms)以及SPW (Slow Positive Waves,后期慢波,700~800 ms)。与被试的反应时结果相比较,ERP数据显示直到中后期EPN的出现,才显示出与快乐优势加工表现的正相关性,这说明EPN成分可能代表着快乐优势加工的初始阶段,即快乐表情的显著性特征在此刻开始引发注意定向。由此,Calvo, M.G.和Beltran, D. [9] 揭示之后的P3b和SPW成分分别涉及持续注意和反应决策的较高级认知加工,其波形与快乐表情面孔的识别速度呈现出更为显著的正相关。

视觉诱发的P1成分一般出现在侧枕部位,峰值约出现在100 ms附近 [10] ,该成分已被证明对含有情绪信息的面部表情较为敏感,相对于中性表情能够产生更大的振幅 [11] - [16] 。然而,也有一些研究并没有发现含有情绪信息的面部表情能够对P1产生显著的影响 [17] ,因此P1在情绪条件下是否出现显著的波峰可能只在一定的实验条件下发生,目前也鲜有研究者对此进行深入探讨。

在P1之后发生的N170成分一般出现在枕颞区,峰值出现在170ms左右,该成分与表情结构信息的编码有关,具有自动加工的性质 [18] [19] 。一些研究报告称,相对于中性面孔表情,情绪面孔产生的N170振幅更高 [11] [20] [21] [22] 。Liu, X.F.、Liao, Y.、Zhou, L.P.、Sun, G.、Li, M.和Zhao, L. [23] 采用简笔画作为实验材料,要求被试完成情绪分类任务,结果发现正性(快乐)面孔诱发的N170波幅显著小于负性(悲伤)面孔。此外,Calvo, M.G.和Beltran, D. [24] 要求被试分别根据嘴部图片完成情绪分类任务,结果表明在左半球快乐面孔也诱发了更大的N170波幅。然而,与P1一样,仍有部分研究并没有发现情绪对N170的影响 [25] 。解释情绪效应引起这些早期ERP成分的确切实验因素仍有待确定。值得注意的是,这些早期阶段的ERP对物理刺激特性非常敏感 [26] ,因此,情绪面部表情之间的“低水平”知觉差异也可能解释这些所谓的早期“情绪”效应,控制这些潜在的混淆因素对实验结果的正确解释十分重要。

N170之后的EPN成分也被认为是反映观察者对情绪信息的选择性注意过程 [27] [28] 。与中性刺激相比,情绪相关刺激如情绪面孔可以产生EPN [29] ,而且与快乐的面孔相比,愤怒的面孔可以观察到更大的EPN [28] [30] 。此外,当对次要任务的注意力需求较高时,EPN可能产生减弱的趋势 [31] ,这表明它可能依赖于注意力分配。

研究者还发现一个名叫N2pc的负成分,通常在刺激开始后180~300 ms的后电极(即视觉皮层)引起,并出现在被注意刺激的对侧半球 [32] [33] [34] [35] 。该成分因其极性(negative)、潜伏期(刺激后约200 ms)、地形图(posterior/contralateral)而命名,并被定义为在目标同侧和目标对侧部位引起的脑电波之间的差异。注意力从一个位置或物体转移到另一个位置的时间点可以通过评估N2pc振幅是否出现在早期(180~250 ms)或晚期(250 ms)来估计。研究发现了支持基于N2pc对面孔刺激反应的愤怒优势效应的证据。Grimshaw, G.M.、Foster, J.J.和Corballis, P.M. [36] 发现,在参与者执行的点探测任务中,与快乐的面孔相比,愤怒的面孔产生的N2pc振幅更大。与中性面孔相比,高度焦虑的人对愤怒的面孔表现出更强的N2pc反应,而在接触快乐的面孔时没有这种神经反应 [37] 。在视觉搜索任务中,与快乐面孔相比,愤怒面孔也会诱发更大的N2pc振幅 [38] [39] 。

4. 不一致结果的可能原因

4.1. 面孔材料

首先,上述实验所采用的实验材料各不相同。总体来说,刺激材料可以分为两大类:一类是使用简单线条描绘出的可以表达不同情绪的面孔图,也称为情绪面孔示意图;另一类是将真实的人类情绪面孔拍摄成照片,经过调整对比度、大小等处理成规格统一的情绪面孔材料,即真人情绪面孔图。用真人情绪面孔图作为刺激材料,具有较好的生态效度,也最符合实验的初衷。而且最初发现面孔搜索不对称性的实验所采用的就是真人面孔图 [1] 。然而,并非所有采用真人情绪面孔的研究都出现了显著的ASE,Williams, M.、Moss, S.、Bradshaw, J.和Mattingley, J. [40] 的研究并未发现正性情绪面孔和负性情绪面孔的搜索效率有显著的差异。同时,还有一部分研究发现了显著的HSE [6] [41] 。因此,虽然大部分研究都对材料做了相应的匹配,但由于真人面孔难以控制面部的低水平知觉因素,故而这些材料还是会导致实验出现不同的误差。

后来,为了排除一些干扰因素,研究者将面孔简化,使用情绪面孔示意图作刺激材料,这样可以排除诸如眉毛、眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴等面部的个体差异。由于情绪面孔示意图的简洁性,特征易操作性等特点,深受研究者的喜爱。虽然这些研究所使用的情绪面孔示意图是有所差异的,但研究均发现了显著的ASE [2] [4] [42] [43] [44] 。

即便使用面孔简图得到了较稳定的ASE,但是很明显,情绪面孔示意图的生态学效度较低,通过研究所得到的结论并不能完全推广到实际中。

4.2. 实验任务

在情绪面孔搜索研究中有两种任务,一种是情绪面孔探测任务,另一种是情绪面孔再认任务。

情绪面孔的探测任务的研究通常采用目标——分心物的视觉搜索范式:在一个屏幕上同时出现目标刺激和干扰刺激或者只出现干扰刺激,要求被试尽快判断是否出现目标刺激 [2] [45] 。

也有一些研究采用情绪面孔再认任务发现了情绪面孔搜索的不对称性 [7] [46] 。上述研究有的得出了ASE,有的得出了HSE,使用相同的情绪面孔图片进行的研究结果,与视觉搜索任务的结果相比却并不相同,这说明研究所采用的实验任务要求以及具体的实验范式同样是影响情绪面孔搜索结果的因素。

4.3. 其他可能的原因

Savage, R.A.、Lipp, O.V.、Craig, B.M.、Becker, S.I.和Horstmann, G. [47] 分析了前人的研究,发现之前采用目标——分心物搜索范式的研究几乎都使用随机目标搜索任务,即每次都从中性面孔中判断是否存在正性或负性面孔,被试需要在搜索策略上投入更多的注意。经过研究发现,在固定目标种类的搜索任务中,出现了与随机目标种类搜索任务不同的结果,这说明目标是否固定也会影响搜索效率。也有研究者认为刺激数量的多少也会影响搜索的效率 [48] 。Craig, B.M.、Becker, S.I.和Lipp, O.V. [49] 发现搜索背景(分心物)的同质性也会影响不对称性,其在同一个研究中采用了两种搜索背景,即异质与同质背景,发现在同质背景下出现了ASE,而在异质背景下出现了HSE。此外,还有诸如面孔相关的知觉特征(如裸露的牙齿)、刺激数量多少、面孔方向等等也可能对搜索速度产生影响。

5. 小结与展望

以往的大量研究间存在着各种各样的不一致,使得理解情绪面孔的视觉搜索过程变得困难。例如,不同实验中采用的方法或任务要求之间的差异以及关于结果报告方式之间的差异(例如,反应时间和搜索效率)很可能导致了这些不一致的实验结果。先前的研究表明,诸如刺激数量、同质和异质的搜索背景、目标数量、面孔方向、材料形式(面孔简图或真人面孔)、是否包含裸露的牙齿或其他低水平的知觉特征等任务设置的差异可能会影响被试搜索面孔的速度和准确性,从而出现不同的面孔搜索不对称性效应。

针对这些不一致的结果,有研究者认为快乐面孔搜索优势和愤怒面孔搜索优势的冲突是由于加工阶段、研究方法和实验任务等因素导致的 [50] 。已有研究表明,负性偏向主要发生在面孔加工的早期阶段 [50] ,是自动化过程,但愉快面孔识别优势则主要发生在面孔加工的中后期,二者可能是存在于不同加工阶段的独立现象 [51] 。

未来,研究者可以探索并对比这两种面孔搜索优势效应各自产生的条件,并借此比较正性面孔和负性面孔加工机制和加工阶段的异同。此外,更为重要的是要逐步探讨影响实验结果的额外变量,因为这些额外变量极有可能是造成前文所述的行为或脑机制研究结果差异较大的原因,若其得到有效排除和控制,将对我们准确理解情绪面孔加工有着十分重要的意义。

参考文献

[1] Hansen, C.H. and Hansen, R.D. (1988) Finding the Face in the Crowd—An Anger Superiority Effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 917-924.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.917
[2] Fox, E., Lester, V., Russo, R., Bowles, R.J., Pichler, A. and Dutton, K. (2000) Facial Expressions of Emotion: Are Angry Faces Detected More Efficiently? Cognition and Emotion, 14, 61-92.
https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300378996
[3] Horstmann, G., Becker, S.I., Bergmann, S. and Burghaus, L. (2010) A Reversal of the Search Asymmetry Favouring Negative Schematic Faces. Visual Cognition, 18, 981-1016.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280903435709
[4] Ohman, A., Lundqvist, D. and Esteves, F. (2001) The Face in the Crowd Revisited: A Threat Advantage with Schematic Stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 381-396.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.381
[5] Tipples, J., Atkinson, A.P. and Young, A.W. (2002) The Eyebrow Frown: A Salient Social Signal. Emotion, 2, 288-296.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.2.3.288
[6] Becker, D.V., Anderson, U.S., Mortensen, C.R., Neufeld, S.L. and Neel, R. (2011) The Face in the Crowd Effect Unconfounded: Happy Faces, Not Angry Faces, Are More Efficiently Detected in Single-and Multiple-Target Visual Search Tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 140, 637-659.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024060
[7] Calvo, M.G. and Lundqvist, D. (2008) Facial Expressions of Emotion (KDEF): Identification under Different Display-Duration Conditions. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 109-115.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.1.109
[8] Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J.W., Leon, A.C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T.A., Marcus, D.J., Westerlund, A., Casey, B.J. and Nelson, C. (2009) The NimStim Set of Facial Expressions: Judgments from Untrained Research Participants. Psychiatry Research, 168, 242-249.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006
[9] Calvo, M.G. and Beltran, D. (2013) Recognition Advantage of Happy Faces: Tracing the Neurocognitive Processes. Neuropsychologia, 51, 2051-2061.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.07.010
[10] Martinez, A., Anllo-Vento, L., Sereno, M.I., Frank, L.R., Buxton, R.B., Dubowitz, D.J., Wong, E.C., Hinrichs, H., Heinze, H.J. and Hillyard, S.A. (1999) Involvement of Striate and Extrastriate Visual Cortical Areas in Spatial Attention. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 364-369.
https://doi.org/10.1038/7274
[11] Batty, M. and Taylor, M.J. (2003) Early Processing of the Six Basic Facial Emotional Expressions. Cognitive Brain Research, 17, 613-620.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(03)00174-5
[12] Brosch, T., Sander, D., Pourtois, G. and Scherer, K.R. (2008) Beyond Fear: Rapid Spatial Orienting toward Positive Emotional Stimuli. Psychological Science, 19, 362-370.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02094.x
[13] Holmes, A., Nielsen, M.K. and Green, S. (2008) Effects of Anxiety on the Processing of Fearful and Happy Faces: An Event-Related Potential Study. Biological Psychology, 77, 159-173.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.10.003
[14] Holmes, A., Nielsen, M.K., Tipper, S. and Green, S. (2009) An Electrophysiological Investigation into the Automaticity of Emotional Face Processing in High versus Low Trait Anxious Individuals. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 323-334.
https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.9.3.323
[15] Pizzagalli, D., Regard, M. and Lehmann, D. (1999) Rapid Emotional Face Processing in the Human Right and Left Brain Hemispheres: An ERP Study. NeuroReport, 10, 2691-2698.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-199909090-00001
[16] Pourtois, G., Grandjean, D., Sander, D. and Vuilleumier, P. (2004) Electrophysiological Correlates of Rapid Spatial Orienting towards Fearful Faces. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 619-633.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhh023
[17] Eimer, M. and Holmes, A. (2007) Event-Related Brain Potential Correlates of Emotional Face Processing. Neuropsychologia, 45, 15-31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.04.022
[18] Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E. and McCarthy, G. (1996) Electrophysiological Studies of Face Perception in Humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 551-565.
https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1996.8.6.551
[19] Eimer, M. (2000) The Face-Specific N170 Component Reflects Late Stages in the Structural Encoding of Faces. NeuroReport, 11, 2319-2324.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200007140-00050
[20] Blau, V.C., Maurer, U., Tottenham, N. and McCandliss, B.D. (2007) The Face-Specific N170 Component Is Modulated by Emotional Facial Expression. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 3, Article No. 7.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-3-7
[21] Schyns, P.G., Petro, L.S. and Smith, M.L. (2007) Dynamics of Visual Information Integration in the Brain for Categorizing Facial Expressions. Current Biology, 17, 1580-1585.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.08.048
[22] Sprengelmeyer, R. and Jentzsch, I. (2006) Event Related Potentials and the Perception of Intensity in Facial Expressions. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2899-2906.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.06.020
[23] Liu, X.F., Liao, Y., Zhou, L.P., Sun, G., Li, M. and Zhao, L. (2013) Mapping the Time Course of the Positive Classification Advantage: An ERP Study. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 491-500.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-013-0158-6
[24] Calvo, M.G. and Beltran, D. (2014) Brain Lateralization of Holistic versus Analytic Processing of Emotional Facial Expressions. NeuroImage, 92, 237-247.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.01.048
[25] Eimer, M. (2011) The Face-Sensitivity of the N170 Component. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, Article 119.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00119
[26] Tobimatsu, S. and Celesia, G.G. (2006) Studies of Human Visual Pathophysiology with Visual Evoked Potentials. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117, 1414-1433.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2006.01.004
[27] Recio, G., Sommer, W. and Schacht, A. (2011) Electrophysiological Correlates of Perceiving and Evaluating Static and Dynamic Facial Emotional Expressions. Brain Research, 1376, 66-75.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.12.041
[28] Schupp, H.T., Ohman, A., Junghöfer, M., Weike, A.I., Stockburger, J. and Hamm. A.O. (2004) The Facilitated Processing of Threatening Faces: An ERP Analysis. Emotion, 4, 189-200.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.4.2.189
[29] Junghofer, M., Bradley, M.M., Elbert, T.R. and Lang, P.J. (2001) Fleeting Images: A New Look at Early Emotion Discrimination. Psychophysiology, 38, 175-178.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8986.3820175
[30] Schupp, H.T., Junghofer, M., Weike, A.I. and Hamm, A.O. (2003) Emotional Facilitation of Sensory Processing in the Visual Cortex. Psychological Science, 14, 7-13.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.01411
[31] Schupp, H.T., Stockburger, J., Bublatzky, F., Junghofer, M., Weike, A.I. and Hamm, A.O. (2007) Explicit Attention Interferes with Selective Emotion Processing in Human Extrastriate Cortex. BMC Neuroscience, 8, Article No. 16.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-8-16
[32] Eimer, M. (1996) The N2pc Component as an Indicator of Attentional Selectivity. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 99, 225-234.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(96)95711-9
[33] Kappenman, E.S., Farrens, J.L., Luck, S.J. and Proudfit, G.H. (2014) Behavioral and ERR Measures of Attentional Bias to Threat in the Dot-Probe Task: Poor Reliablity and Lack of Correlation with Anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 1368.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01368
[34] Kappenman, E.S., MacNamara, A. and Proudfit, G.H. (2014) Electrocortical Evidence for Rapid Allocation of Attention to Threat in the Dot-Probe Task. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10, 577-583.
https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsu098
[35] Luck, S.J. and Hillyard, S.A. (1994) Spatial-Filtering during Visu-al-Search-Evidence from Human Electrophysiology. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 20, 1000-1014.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.20.5.1000
[36] Grimshaw, G.M., Foster, J.J. and Corballis, P.M. (2014) Frontal and Parietal EEG Asymmetries Interact to Predict Attentional Bias to Threat. Brain and Cognition, 90, 76-86.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2014.06.008
[37] Fox, E., Derakshan, N. and Shoker, L. (2008) Trait Anxiety Modulates the Electrophysiological Indices of Rapid Spatial Orienting towards Angry Faces. NeuroReport, 19, 259-263.
https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f53d2a
[38] Brosch, T., Pourtois, G., Sander, D. and Vuilleumier, P. (2011) Additive Effects of Emotional, Endogenous, and Exogenous Attention: Behavioral and Electrophysiological Evidence. Neuropsychologia, 49, 1779-1787.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.056
[39] Feldmann-Wustefeld, T., Schmidt-Daffy, M. and Schubo, A. (2011) Neural Evidence for the Threat Detection Advantage: Differential Attention Allocation to Angry and Happy Faces. Psychophysiology, 48, 697-707.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01130.x
[40] Williams, M., Moss, S., Bradshaw, J. and Mattingley, J. (2005) Look at Me, I’m Smiling: Visual Search for Threatening and Nonthreatening Facial Expressions. Visual Cognition, 12, 29-50.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280444000193
[41] Calvo, M.G. and Nummenmaa, L. (2008) Detection of Emotional Faces: Salient Physical Features Guide Effective Visual Search. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 137, 471-494.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012771
[42] Eastwood, J.D., Smilek, D. and Merikle, P.M. (2001) Differential Attentional Guidance by Unattended Faces Expressing Positive and Negative Emotion. Perception & Psychophysics, 63, 1004-1013.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194519
[43] Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R. and Dutton, K. (2001) Do Threatening Stimuli Draw or Hold Visual Attention in Subclinical Anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 130, 681-700.
https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.130.4.681
[44] Horstmann, G. and Bauland, A. (2006) Search Asymmetries with Real Faces: Testing the Anger-Superiority Effect. Emotion, 6, 193-207.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.193
[45] Blagrove, E. and Watson, D.G. (2010) Visual Marking and Facial Affect: Can an Emotional Face Be Ignored? Emotion, 10, 147-168.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017743
[46] Calder, A.J., Young, A.W., Keane, J. and Dean, M. (2000) Configural Information in Facial Expression Perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 26, 527-551.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.26.2.527
[47] Savage, R.A., Lipp, O.V., Craig, B.M., Becker, S.I. and Horstmann, G. (2013) In Search of the Emotional Face: Anger versus Happiness Superiority in Visual Search. Emotion, 13, 758-768.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031970
[48] Frischen, A., Eastwood, J.D. and Smilek, D. (2008) Visual Search for Faces with Emotional Expressions. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 662-676.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.5.662
[49] Craig, B.M., Becker, S.I. and Lipp, O.V. (2014) Different Faces in the Crowd: A Happiness Superiority Effect for Schematic Faces in Heterogeneous Backgrounds. Emotion, 14, 794-803.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036043
[50] Dong, G.H., Zhou, H., Zhao, X. and Lu, Q.L. (2011) Early Negativity Bias Occurring Prior to Experiencing of Emotion: An ERP Study. Journal of Psychophysiology, 25, 9-17.
https://doi.org/10.1027/0269-8803/a000027
[51] Svard, J., Wiens, S. and Fischer, H. (2012) Superior Recognition Performance for Happy Masked and Unmasked Faces in both Younger and Older Adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, Article 520.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00520