领导亲社会违规行为对员工影响的回顾与展望
Review and Prospect of the Impact of Leader’s Pro-Social Rule Breaking Behavior on Employees
摘要: 近年来,亲社会违规行为受到越来越多研究者的关注。目前研究集中在员工层面,而领导拥有更多权力和权威,也存在亲社会违规,并且,该行为会对员工产生影响。学界基于社会学习理论、社会交换理论、归因理论、心理契约理论等,探索了领导亲社会违规行为对员工的影响及其边界条件。未来可探索领导亲社会违规行为对员工多水平的影响,对员工影响的内在机制,加强领导亲社会违规行为前因研究,以及在中国特有文化背景下如何影响员工。
Abstract: In recent years, pro-social rule breaking has received extensive attention from scholars. Previous study mainly focused on the employee level, where leaders with more power and authority also engage in pro-social rule breaking that also has an impact on employees. Based on social learning theory, social exchange theory, attribution theory and psychological contract theory, scholars had initially explored the impact of leader’s pro-social rule breaking on employees and its boundary conditions. In the future, it is worthwhile to further explore the impact of leadership pro-social rule breaking on individual and team members, the internal mechanism of the impact on employees, and strengthen the research on the antecedents of Leader’s prosocial violation behavior, and how to influence employees under the unique Chinese cultural background.
文章引用:蔡丽娟, 李宏利 (2022). 领导亲社会违规行为对员工影响的回顾与展望. 心理学进展, 12(12), 4171-4180. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2022.1212504

1. 引言

亲社会违规行为(Pro-social rule breaking behavior)指员工意图违反正式的组织政策、规定或禁令,以此促进组织效率、帮助同事或为顾客提供更好服务的行为(Morrison, 2006)。亲社会违规行为有三个特点。首先,亲社会违规行为由利他动机推动,其主要目的是为了利益相关者的福利,如顾客(Ambrose et al., 2015)、同事(Shum et al., 2019)、股东、团队或者组织(Wang et al., 2020),尽管有时会产生对自利的结果,但这只是副作用。其次,该行为违反的是由组织明确规定的、自上而下都必须遵守的、正式的规则,而不是由传统、习俗或道德推动的非正式的规则。最后,该行为是主动的、有意图的,而不是偶然的、无意的或被迫的,需体现员工的主动性。

目前,亲社会违规行为受到大量关注,研究主要集中在四个方面,包括个人层面(如责任心、同情心、冒险倾向、组织认同、核心自我评价、高公共服务动机等) (Dahling et al., 2012; Morrison, 2006; Vardaman et al., 2014; Dahling & Gutworth, 2017; Weißmüller et al., 2022)、领导层面(如变革型领导、道德领导、仁慈领导、家长式领导、包容性领导等) (Huang et al., 2014 ; Zhu et al., 2018; Li et al., 2015; Tu & Luo, 2020; He et al., 2021; Wang & Shi, 2021)、组织层面(如组织公平、反生产力规则等) (Mayer et al., 2007; Ji & Yan, 2022)、工作特征(工作意义、工作自主性、工作复杂性等) (Morrison, 2006; Kahari et al., 2017)。近年来,也有研究表明,同事亲社会违规行为也会引发员工的亲社会违规行为(Fleming, 2020)。同时,亲社会违规行为不仅存在于员工身上,领导在工作中也会出现该行为,由于领导具有更高的职位和更大的权力,其行为结果也难以预料(Chen et al., 2019)。

研究表明,领导行为对员工具有导向作用(Li et al., 2016),积极的领导行为促进员工的积极工作行为(Phong et al., 2018)。领导作为拥有更高权力的人,其亲社会违规行为产生的结果更加复杂。由于目前没有专门的文献梳理领导亲社会违规行为对员工的影响,我们认为有必要对此进行回顾和整理,这不仅能促进亲社会违规行为的文献研究,并为实践中如何通过领导亲社会违规行为对员工产生积极影响提供了理论基础。

2. 领导亲社会违规行为对员工的积极与消极影响

2.1. 积极影响

领导亲社会违规行为是出于关心员工等目的,会对员工产生积极影响。首先,根据社会学习理论,员工会选择领导为工作中的学习榜样,所以该行为会促进员工追随行为,从而做出亲社会违规行为(Chen et al., 2019),而员工亲社会违规行为会促进员工的创新行为(Petrou et al., 2020)。同时,由于领导亲社会违规行为是出于仁慈、实用和公平的目的,对形成上级–下属心理契约的员工来说,向其传递了良善的信息,因此员工会采取积极的行为来进行回应,如有研究表明,领导亲社会违规行为对员工创新行为有直接影响(刘效广,马宇欧,2021)。其次,领导亲社会违规行为展现了领导对员工的关心,有助于解决其工作和生活中的困难,会对员工可持续的组织认同产生积极作用(Lv et al., 2020)。可持续组织认同被定义为“对一个组织的统一或归属感的感知,个人定义自己是组织中的一员”(Ashforth et al., 2008)。员工对组织的可持续认同有助于他们理解组织的前提及高层组织的态度和行为,改善工作参与、情感承诺、高度角色内和角色外表现以及员工产出等(Lee et al., 2015 ; Ma et al., 2022)。最后,心理工作成熟度低的员工缺乏自我管理,对规则破坏不敏感,相对于心理工作成熟度高员工来说,他们更倾向于依赖领导者。领导亲社会违规行为是出于对员工有利的目的,因此对心理工作成熟度低的员工来说,领导亲社会违规行为与领导认同呈正相关,而领导认同又与员工绩效有关(Li et al., 2019)。

2.2. 消极影响

但是,领导亲社会违规行为也存在一些无法预测的消极影响。首先,该行为违反组织规则,相比领导,员工处于信息较少、地位和权力不同的一方,无法对领导亲社会违规行为进行准确归因,所以可能使员工感知到组织不公平,以及对组织–员工心理契约的违背。因此,领导亲社会违规行为会减少员工感知到的组织支持感、降低工作满意度与管理信任(Bryant et al., 2010),而这些又与员工离职倾向有关(Wang & Wang, 2020; Akinyemi et al, 2022; Jyothilakshmy et al, 2021)。其次,尽管该行为是出于仁慈、实用和公平的目的,但当员工感知到程序不公平时,会对组织可持续认同产生消极影响(Lv et al., 2020)。社会学、管理心理学和新制度经济学表明,规则对组织内形成良好合作氛围具有重要作用,而领导亲社会违规行为是对组织规则的破坏(Martin et al., 2013),给员工树立不好的榜样,形成违规文化,对员工产生负面影响(Larsson et al., 2014)。再次,虽然领导亲社会违规行为会促进员工亲社会违规行为的发展(Chen et al., 2019),产生积极影响,但Dahling等人也提出,员工亲社会违规行为负向影响上司对员工的绩效评价。最后,心理工作成熟度高的员工具有高度责任感,对规则违反高度敏感,相比心理工作成熟度低的员工,对领导依赖较少。所以,尽管领导亲社会违规行为是出于好的目的,心理成熟度高的员工也会认为是规则的违反,进而对领导认同产生消极影响(Li et al., 2019)。

3. 领导亲社会违规行为对员工影响机制的理论解释

3.1. 社会学习理论

社会学习理论认为,个体通过观察可信角色模型的行为来学习社会行为(Bandura & Walters, 1977)。Morrison提出,同事会成为员工学习的榜样,其亲社会违规行为会影响员工的亲社会违规行为。然而,相比同事,领导更具有权威和能力,更可能成为员工学习的榜样(Wang et al., 2018)。另一方面,社会学习理论认为个体所处的环境会对其学习和动机产生影响(Bandura & Walters, 1977)。基于该理论推测,领导亲社会违规行为会给员工创造一种组织规则可以被打破的氛围,员工可能通过观察组织管理者的亲社会违规行为来学习亲社会违规行为。

榜样对观察者的吸引力在观察学习中起着重要的作用。领导在组织中比员工具有更高的地位,并且拥有更多的权力和资源,且对员工的升职加薪具有重要影响(Dépret & Fiske, 1993)。因此,员工可能会对领导行为更加关注。当领导形成亲社会违规行为时,员工可能会认为该行为是被允许的,并且潜意识地学习背后的价值标准,即组织规则是可以因为组织及其利益相关者的福利而被打破的(Chen et al., 2019),从而更容易做出亲社会违规行为。

3.2. 社会交换理论

社会交换理论认为,当参与交换的发起方以好的或坏的方式对待另一方时,交换关系的目标方会以相同的方式进行反馈(Lavelle et al., 2007 )。领导行为被员工看作是交换关系的发起方,员工会对领导行为进行分析判断,再做出进一步的反映(Cropanzano et al., 2017)。

当领导出于仁慈的原因做出亲社会违规行为时,向员工传递的是积极的信号,员工会在此行为中获得好处。而领导对员工的支持,会使员工在工作中提高工作效率,简化工作流程,会被员工视为一种支持性的社会资源,从而以积极的方式进行回馈,如提高工作创新行为(刘效广,马宇欧,2021)。

3.3. 归因理论

归因理论(Kelley, 1987)认为,人们观察自己和他人的行为,并在观察的基础上对行动者的行为进行归因。归因分为三个阶段,分别是观察到特定行为(感知),判断行为为有意行为(判断),对行为进行内外部归因。通常情况下,人们倾向于将他人的失败和自己的成功进行内部归因,而对他人的成功和自己的失败进行外部归因(Heider, 2013),内部因素包括人格特征、能力、情绪反应等,外部因素包括周围环境、当前情景等。

在归因中确定行为是否为可控的很重要,行为若是可控的,人们通常会进行内部特质归因,而当行为是不可控时,人们倾向于外部环境归因(Furst & Cable, 2008)。领导亲社会违规行为是由领导发起的,与员工之间存在地位、权力、信息等差异,因此,员工可能无法对该行为进行准确归因,反而将经常出现的领导亲社会违规行为认为是领导对组织规则的反抗和不服从,进而减少组织支持感、工作满意度和组织信任(Bryant et al., 2010)。

3.4. 心理契约理论

心理契约理论被定义为个人对与另一方交换关系的条款和条件的信念(Coyle-Shapiro & Conway, 2005)。当员工感知到心理契约被组织支持,那么员工会回报积极的工作行为,例如提高工作满意度与工作动力等。相反,就会回报消极的工作行为,如降低工作满意度和工作动力等(Bryant et al., 2010)。

尽管心理契约是组织和员工之间的,但员工实际感知到的心理契约是和其直接领导之间的,而领导是组织的代表(Suazo et al., 2008)。因此,可能会形成两种心理契约。当员工形成的是上级-下属心理契约时,领导亲社会违规行为向员工传递良善的信息,使员工感知到领导对心理契约的支持,从而采取积极的行为来进行反馈,如领导亲社会违规行为会正向影响员工创新;当员工形成的是组织-员工心理契约时,则该行为是对组织规则的违反,而领导作为组织的代表,会让员工感知到其对心理契约的违背,进而采取消极的工作行为,如领导亲社会违规行为负向影响员工创新(刘效广,马宇欧,2021)。

4. 领导亲社会违规行为对员工影响的边界条件

领导亲社会违规行为除了对员工有直接影响外,员工受领导亲社会违规行为的影响还受员工个人因素、领导因素和组织因素的影响。

4.1. 员工个人因素

勇气。勇气是指,尽管有不同程度的恐惧,但为了实现重要目标而自愿采取行动。亲社会违规行为是为了保护组织及其利益相关者的利益,但伴随着高风险,所以该行为由勇气驱动。勇气在领导亲社会违规行为和员工亲社会违规行为之间起中介作用,领导亲社会违规行为通过勇气正向影响员工亲社会违规行为(Chen et al., 2019)。

员工信任感。员工信任分为领导信任和制度信任,前者任是指员工通过在日常工作中与领导的频繁接触形成对领导是否可信的一种主观评价(Luo, 2005),后者是指员工相信组织制度足够规范使其能够对自己的工作目标及规划更加清晰(McKnight et al., 1998)。领导亲社会违规行为一方面是出于好的目的,但又是对组织规则的违反。则领导信任在领导亲社会违规行为和员工积极行为之间起中介作用,而制度信任在领导亲社会违规行为和员工消极行为之间起中介作用(Liu & Wang, 2018)。

领导认同。根据社会认同理论,认同包括自我认同和社会认同,而领导认同是社会认同的一种特殊形式(Pratt, 1998)。领导认同是一个复杂的心理过程,不仅涉及到员工与领导关系的评价,还涉及到员工对领导魅力、情感和动机的感知与评价(Van Knippenberg et al., 2004)。因此,领导亲社会违规行为是一种有利有弊的管理行为,其对领导认同的影响取决于员工的个人感知和评价,并随员工个性特征的不同而变化(Li et al., 2019)。

员工心理工作成熟度。员工心理工作成熟度是工作场所中重要的个人特质,可以显著影响员工对领导行为的感知,并在领导认同过程中起着关键作用(Blank et al., 1988; Li et al., 2013)。心理工作成熟度高的员工具有强烈的责任感,这与尽责性高度相关(Li et al., 2013),因此,他们更不容易偏离正式的行为预期(Li et al., 2019)。相反,对于心理成熟度低的员工而言,他们对规则违反的敏感度较低。

4.2. 领导因素

领导风格。第一,授权型领导。领导通过解释感知意义,鼓励员工参与决策,对员工有信心,允许工作自主性,分享权力,增强员工的工作积极性(Zhang & Bartol, 2010)。当授权领导的程度高时,领导鼓励员工做决定,相信他们能有好的绩效表现,是员工做出违规行为的重要影响因素,从而使领导亲社会违规行为和员工亲社会违规行为之间的正向关系更强(Chen et al., 2019)。第二,仁慈型领导。仁慈型领导是指通过以下方式在组织中创造一个鼓励和发起积极变革的良性循环的过程:道德决策;创造一种意义感;激发希望,培养积极行动的勇气;为更大的组织留下积极的影响(Karakas & Sarigollu, 2012)。研究表明,仁慈型领导能提高员工任务表现和团队创造性表现(Shi et al., 2022; Xia et al., 2022),为领导和员工提供良好轻松的工作氛围,并对其错误包容性较大。

4.3. 组织因素

感知到的组织公平。组织公平是指,道德决策的基础应该是平等、公平、不偏颇的标准(Daft, 2015)。组织公平分为分配公平、程序公平和互动公平(Jawahar, 2002)。分配公平指结果或奖励的公平(Jawahar, 2002),程序公平指分配过程中,群体成员之间有一致的看法(Walumbwa et al., 2008),互动公平指权威对待员工的待遇的适当性(Cropanzano et al., 2007)。当员工认为领导亲社会违规行为是对组织规则的违反,会损害其感知到的组织公平,减少组织支持感、降低感知满意度和管理信任(Bryant et al., 2010)。同时,规则执行中的不一致会使员工认为组织缺乏权威和可性度,损害员工感知到的程序公平,对组织的可持续认同产生消极影响(Lv et al., 2020)。

组织氛围。组织氛围分为关怀氛围和规则氛围。领导亲社会违规行为传达出对员工的关怀,而领导是组织的代表,可以促进关怀氛围的形成(Liu & Wang, 2018)。在高关怀氛围的组织下,做出对组织或他人有利的行为成为一种道德规范,促进员工产生更多自己角色外的组织公民行为(Zehir et al., 2014)。但是,根据社会学习理论,员工倾向于模仿领导的亲社会违规行为,但由于无法准确把握违规行为而削弱组织规则氛围,产生职场偏差行为。关怀氛围在组织领导亲社会违规行为与员工组织公民行为之间起中介作用,而规则氛围在领导亲社会违规行为和员工职场偏差行为之间起作用(Liu & Wang, 2018)。

5. 未来展望

图1综合整理了领导亲社会违规行为对员工产生了的影响及边界条件。由图可看出,目前对领导亲社会违规行为如何影响员工的研究主要集中在员工、领导和组织层面,未来的研究可从以下几点出发。

Figure 1. The influence of Leader’s prosocial violation on employees and boundary conditions

图1. 领导亲社会违规行为对员工的影响及边界条件

第一,进一步探索领导亲社会违规行为对员工多水平的影响。目前关于领导亲社会违规行为对员工影响的研究集中在员工个体层面,然而,现代企业更多使用团队合作形式(King et al., 2016)。目前,已有研究开始探索团队亲社会违规行为对团队绩效产生的影响(Cai et al., 2022),而领导作为团队的决策者,其行为也会影响团队创新、团队绩效等(Zhang et al., 2011; Ha & Nguyen, 2014)。相对于员工个人,团队构成和决策方式等不同,团队决策存在更理性、更自私的现象(何浩然,卢柯霖,2021),对领导亲社会违规行为的判断可能更加客观,从而较少存在盲目跟随行为。

第二,细化领导者亲社会违规行为对员工影响的内在机制。由于疫情影响,居家办公的时间较往年增加,工作与家庭的界限更加模糊,两者之间可能会相互影响(Delanoeije et al., 2019),如研究表明,配偶的情绪智力会影响员工的工作投入(Zhang et al., 2022),未来研究可将家庭因素纳入研究范围。另一方面,员工对领导行为的反应受多种因素的综合影响,如领导者能力、工作年限、以往的工作绩效等(van Minh et al., 2017),需要明确员工对领导亲社会违规行为的反应是基于该行为还是基于对领导者以往的评价。

第三,加强领导亲社会违规行为前因研究。目前关于亲社会违规行为的研究基本集中在员工层面,较少文献直接探索影响领导亲社会违规行为的因素。领导者与员工所处位置不同,其影响因素不同。例如,领导具有更高的权力和地位,但组织中存在领导权力与地位不匹配的情况,地位比权力更依赖人际,会更加注重他人看法(容琰等,2022),高地位低权力的领导可能会更容易做出亲社会违规行为。

最后,未来研究可探索在中国特有文化背景下领导者亲社会违规行为如何影响员工。Liu和Wang (2018)提出,在中国特有文化背景下,亲社会违规行为主要出于仁慈、实用和公平三个目的。中国一直以来深受儒家文化的影响,中国人处理事情感情和规则并重,当今中国文化和社会中仍然存在着权力和利益交换掩盖社会统治的现象(Liu & Li, 2015)。员工在加工领导亲社会违规行为时,会受到感情与规则的双重影响。一方面,亲社会违规行为在一定程度上是对规则的破坏,另一方面,该行为是出于感情,两条路径如何影响员工需要进一步探索。同时,儒家文化强调对权威的服从(Chen & Hsieh, 2017),而领导作为权威的代表,可能会加强员工的追随行为。

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