成人ADHD患者的执行功能缺陷研究综述
A Review of Executive Function Deficits in Adults with ADHD
DOI: 10.12677/AP.2023.1311652, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 181  浏览: 359 
作者: 严娅雯:重庆师范大学教育科学学院,重庆
关键词: ADHD执行功能工作记忆ADHD Executive Function Working Memory
摘要: 注意缺陷/多动障碍(ADHD)是一种以多动、注意力不集中和冲动为特征的新发育障碍,如果在儿童期不加以干预治疗,则会一直影响到成年期。从临床角度来看,患有ADHD的成年人表现出执行功能缺陷。本文汇总了现有经常被使用的被用来分析执行功能的研究方法,分析考察了直至目前国内外对成人ADHD患者的执行功能缺陷的研究现状,未来的研究可能会着力于从其他角度对成人ADHD患者的执行功能缺陷展开探究。
Abstract: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a new developmental disorder characterized by hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity that can persist into adulthood if not treated with inter-vention in childhood. From a clinical perspective, adults with ADHD exhibit deficits in executive functioning. This article summarizes existing research methods that have been frequently used to analyze executive functioning, analyzes and examines the current state of national and internation-al research on executive functioning deficits in adults with ADHD up to the present time, and sug-gests that future research may focus on other perspectives on executive functioning deficits in adults with ADHD.
文章引用:严娅雯 (2023). 成人ADHD患者的执行功能缺陷研究综述. 心理学进展, 13(11), 5168-5174. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2023.1311652

1. 注意力缺陷/多动障碍

注意缺陷/多动障碍(ADHD)是一种以多动、注意力不集中和冲动为特征的新发育障碍,影响了近5%的儿童和2.5%的成人(Pallanti & Salerno, 2020)。根据Barkley (2013)的说法,ADHD可能代表了典型人类特征的一种极端形式,而不是大多数情况下的病理障碍。有研究认为,有症状的成人ADHD患病率约为6.76% (Song et al., 2021)。ADHD患者如果在儿童期不加以干预治疗,则会一直影响到成年期。成年后的多动症与学业失败、心理障碍、人际关系冲突、意外事故和就业困难有关(Antshel & Barkley, 2009; Barkley, et al., 2008)。有研究显示,患有多动症的大学生在留校查看期间不仅平均绩点较低,而且与其他大学生相比,他们的学业问题更多(Frazier et al., 2007; Heiligenstein et al., 1999)。研究表明,成年期多动症的症状可能对就业造成困难(Dige & Wik, 2005; Hervey et al., 2004; Seidman et al., 1998; Woods et al., 2002)。因此,对于成年期的ADHD患者,提供适当的干预和治疗非常重要。执行功能(EF)的神经心理功能缺陷是导致ADHD的原因之一(Barkley, 2011; Brown, 2006)。从临床角度来看,患有ADHD的成年人表现出的症状超出了DSM-5所描述的注意力分散和多动冲动以及混合型的症状,表现出执行功能缺陷(Adler et al., 2019; Goodman et al., 2011)。执行功能缺陷(executive functions disorders, EFDs)包括认知领域,如反应抑制、非语言工作记忆、语言工作记忆、情绪和动机自我调节、计划制定和解决问题。

2. 执行功能概述

执行功能(executive functions, EFs),也称执行控制或认知控制,指对各种认知过程进行一系列自上而下的心理调节的高级认知功能(李红等,2004)。执行功能被认为有三个核心成分,包括抑制(自我控制和干扰控制)、工作记忆、认知灵活性(Lehto et al., 2003; Zelazo et al., 1997)。Pennington和Ozonoff (1996)提出执行功能有五个方面:流畅性(在提示下快速生成单词),计划(确定解决问题所需的步骤),工作记忆(在解决问题时记住信息的能力),抑制(控制自己反应的能力)和转移(从一件事转移到另一件事的能力)。在这些执行功能中,反应抑制困难被认为会导致工作记忆、记忆、计划和流畅性方面的问题(Barkley, 1997; Dige & Wik, 2005; Stavro et al., 2007; Woods et al., 2002),但在认知能力方面没有(Rashid et al., 2001)。“执行功能”是一个总括性术语,涵盖了几个领域,可以大致分为“热”执行和“冷”执行(Yang et al., 2011)。“热”执行,包括处理情绪和社会行为,由于缺乏研究执行控制的情绪/社会行为的不同亚型的框架。“冷”执行,它不直接涉及情绪处理,它包括各种相关但可区分的领域,可以在同一实验环境中单独研究(Borges et al., 2013; Ginani et al., 2011; Vaz et al., 2011)。

3. 常见成人ADHD患者的执行功能的研究方法

3.1. 实验范式

停止信号任务(stop-signal task, SST; Verbruggen & Logan, 2008),在该任务中,被试被要求在一个“go”信号后做出强制选择反应,例如,一个指向左边或右边的箭头,并分别按下左边或右边的按钮。至关重要的是,在一小部分试验中,在启动信号之后会出现听觉或视觉上的“stop”信号,实验保留被试行为反应。

可控口语单词联想(controlled oral word association, COWAT; Spreen & Benton, 1977),是一项测试语言流畅性的测试。它评估在指定的时间间隔内产生以特定字母开头的不同单词的能力。

连续作业测验(CPT; Conners, 1995),这项任务要求参与者在电脑屏幕上看到除了字母X外的任意字母时尽快按下空格键并记录反应。

韦氏成人智力量表(WAIS-R; Wechsler, 1981),在子测试DS中,参与者被要求重复一系列由实验者大声朗读的数字。在DS-FW中,被试必须按照阅读的顺序重复该系列。在DS-BW中,序列必须向后重复,这种操作需要工作记忆。

Stroop色词干扰测试(stroop color word Test; Stroop, 1992),在这项任务中向被试展示三张不同的卡片,前两张卡片需要读颜色名称(W牌)和命名颜色(C牌)。第三张牌(颜色字:CW)是实际的干扰牌,它由颜色名称组成,颜色名称要么用指定的颜色(红色用红墨水印刷),要么用不同的颜色(红色用绿墨水印刷)。要求被试说出墨水的颜色,而不是颜色的名称。通常选择CW牌上正确命名的颜色的数量来表示干扰。

路径测试(TMT; Reitan & Wolfson, 1985),该任务要求被试连接一系列的圆圈。在A部分(TMT-A)中,圆圈包含数字(1-25),被试要按照计数顺序将它们连接起来,这部分需要串行信息处理、视觉扫描和电机速度。B部分(TMT-B)有数字圈和字母圈。指示是通过数字和字母交替连接圆圈(即1-A-2-B等),TMT-B是对工作记忆和干扰控制(抑制)的测量。

威斯康星卡片分类任务(Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, WCST; Kongs et al., 2000)被用来测量认知灵活性。被试需要将一副牌分成不同的类别,而没有提供关于分类规则的明确指示。可能的分类是基于卡片表面的形状、颜色或项目数量。卡片一直留在屏幕上,直到它们被分类。被试通过完成最大数量的测试(包括2副64张牌,总共128张牌)或成功完成6个方块的10次正确的颜色、形状或数字测试,达到任务的结束。

3.2. 问卷测量

执行功能行为评定量表(BRIEF; Gioia et al., 2000),该量表包含86个项目,这些项目将问题行为分为(1) 从未发生,(2) 有时发生,或(3) 过去一个月经常发生。用于评估执行功能能力的独特方面,包括抑制、转移和情绪控制量表,它们共同构成行为调节指数,以及启动、工作记忆、计划/组织、材料组织和监测量表,它们共同构成元认知指数。

执行障碍问卷(DEX; Burgess et al., 1996),该量表包含20个项目,旨在筛选获得性脑损伤后可观察到的执行功能障碍日常表现的变化。它涵盖了广泛的具体问题,包括注意力、记忆、信息处理、行为控制、情绪调节和意识方面的困难。项目按5分(0~4)李克特量表进行评分,被试得分越高表示执行功能缺陷越严重(从“从不”到“经常”)。

4. 成人ADHD患者的执行功能的研究进展

人们提出了许多理论模型来解释ADHD背后的神经认知机制。Pennington和Ozonoff (1996)是最早为ADHD的病因设计理论模型的人之一,他们假设在ADHD患者身上观察到的注意力问题和冲动行为是由于执行功能的缺陷引起的。他们观察到,多动症的一些症状与额叶病变患者的症状相似,尤其是在前额皮质,并假设前额皮质功能下降导致多动症患者的执行功能缺陷。这一假设为后来的理论模型奠定了基础。Barkley的行为抑制模型(BBM; Barkley, 1997)是研究ADHD症状的最全面的方法之一,其中行为抑制起主要作用。由于工作记忆在解释ADHD症状中的重要作用,Barkley (2019)近几年更新了他的模型,将工作记忆从一个中介变量提升到一个与行为抑制并列的主要位置,并将他的新模型命名为新版Barkley执行功能模型(BUEFM)。关于ADHD的神经认知方面的实验和相关发现表明,工作记忆是ADHD症状的关键和主要机制(Alderson et al., 2010; Groves et al, 2020; Kofler et al., 2008; Lee, 2005; Rapport et al., 2001; Tarle, 2015)。钱英等(2011)人证明了这一点,他们使用了一系列包括测验对成人ADHD患者的工作记忆、抑制、转换、计划和流畅性等方面进行评估,结果表示成人ADHD患者仅在工作记忆方面存在缺陷,其他方面无明显差异。

除工作记忆外,成人ADHD患者在许多特定的电磁场过程中表现出明显的缺陷(Adler et al., 2017; Barkley, 1997; Biederman et al., 2006; Brown, 2006; Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Barkley, 2011),神经影像学研究也证实了这一点,这些研究支持成人ADHD与执行功能障碍之间的关系(Abramov et al., 2019; Cortese et al., 2012; van Ewijk et al., 2015)。此外,Silverstein等人(2020)得出结论,ADHD症状与一般执行功能问题密切相关并具有预测性。Woods等人(2002)讨论了将执行功能测量方法用于成人ADHD样本的研究,他们的结论是,与正常对照组相比,患有多动症的成年人在注意力和执行功能、听觉–语言学习和复杂信息处理速度等方面表现出细微的缺陷,他们进一步得出结论:区分ADHD成人与健康对照组的最显著和最可靠的措施是一系列Stroop任务、口头字母流畅性、听觉–口头学习和持续作业测试。潘美蓉等(2017)人采用了横断研究,对符合标准的ADHD成人患者以及健康对照组进行比较分析,探讨成人ADHD患者的执行功能特点及其与ADHD症状之间的相关性,结果发现成人ADHD患者存在不同维度的执行功能缺陷,并且这些缺陷都与ADHD的核心症状相关。

也有研究发现ADHD的成人患者的执行功能缺陷程度可能会受到各种条件变量的影响。Milioni等(2016)人发现IQ更高的ADHD成人患者可以通过智商来弥补在执行功能上的缺陷,从而影响对于这部分人群临床上的诊断。Halleland等(2015)人的研究结果也发现,除了智商因素,存在执行功能缺陷的ADHD亚组在儿童时期的阅读和写作能力方面的问题更多,自我报告的ADHD症状也比正常组多。

5. 总结

执行功能始终是一个还需要不断探索的认知领域,研究结果不仅对ADHD相关研究有着理论意义,还对其他方面有着重要实践意义。ADHD虽然是儿童时期常见的一种发育障碍,研究儿童ADHD的学者也更多,但是ADHD对成人的影响也受到了不少人的关注。本文展示了如何实现建立一个全面的认知概况来定义ADHD是一种包括所有注意力缺陷的疾病模式(注意力缺陷、冲动行为和无关刺激干扰、分散注意力),执行功能的流畅性、计划、工作记忆、抑制和转移。有助于未来对成人ADHD的研究发展,但现有国内外文献仍未对执行功能有一致性的研究,对ADHD患者的损伤可以通过不同的执行功能和与疾病相关的其他症状来预测,为了改善临床实践,应考虑各方面的结果。因此更多有关ADHD的执行功能方面的缺陷,还需要不断地探索和思考。

参考文献

[1] 李红, 高山, 王乃弋(2004). 执行功能研究方法评述. 心理科学进展, 12(5), 693-705.
[2] 潘美蓉, 黄芳, 王延菲, 赵梦婕, 钱秋谨, 王玉凤(2017). 注意缺陷多动障碍成人患者执行功能研究. 中国神经精神疾病杂志, 43(11), 676-682.
[3] 钱英, 张小梅, 杨蕊, 杜巧新, 王玉凤(2011). 成人注意缺陷多动障碍患者的执行功能. 中国心理卫生杂志, 25(4), 265-268.
[4] Abramov, D. M., Cunha, C. Q., Galhanone, P. R., Alvim, R. J., de Oliveira, A. M., & Lazarev, V. V. (2019). Neurophysiological and Behavioral Correlates of Alertness Impairment and Compensatory Processes in ADHD Evidenced by the Attention Network Test. PLOS ONE, 14, e0219472.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219472
[5] Adler, L. A., Farahbakhshian, S., Romero, B., Flood, E., & Doll, H. (2019). Healthcare Provider Perspectives on Diagnosing and Treating Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Postgraduate Medicine, 131, 461-472.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00325481.2019.1647080
[6] Adler, L. A., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Berglund, P., Alperin, S., & Kessler, R. C. (2017). The structure of Adult ADHD. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Re-search, 26, e1555.
https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1555
[7] Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Hudec, K. L., Sarver, D. E., & Kofler, M. J. (2010). Competing Core Processes in Attention-Deficit/Hyper-Activity Disorder (ADHD): Do Working Memory Deficiencies Underlie Behavioral Inhibition Deficits? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 497-507.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9387-0
[8] Antshel, K., & Barkley, R. A. (2009). Developmental and Behavioral Disorders Grown up: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30, 81-90.
https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e31819359ea
[9] Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the Nature of Self-Control. Guilford Press.
[10] Barkley, R. A. (2011). Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS). Guilford Press.
https://doi.org/10.1037/t37378-000
[11] Barkley, R. A. (2013). Taking Charge of ADHD: The Complete, Authoritative Guide for Parents. Guilford Press.
[12] Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. R. (2010). Impairment in Occupational Functioning and Adult ADHD: The Predictive Utility of Executive Function (EF) Ratings versus EF Tests. Archives of Clinical Neuro-psychology, 25, 157-173.
https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acq014
[13] Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., & Fischer, M. (2008). ADHD in Adults: What the Science Says. Guilford.
[14] Biederman, J., Petty, C., Fried, R., Fontanella, J., Doyle, A. E., Seidman, L. J. et al. (2006). Impact of Psychometrically Defined Deficits of Executive Functioning in Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1730-1738.
https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.10.1730
[15] Borges, J. G., Ginani, G. E., Hachul, H., Cintra, F. D., Tufik, S., & Pompéia, S. (2013). Executive Functioning in Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome Patients without Comorbidities: Focus on the Fractionation of Executive Functions. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35, 1094-1107.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2013.858661
[16] Brown, T. E. (2006). Executive Functions and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Implications of Two Conflicting Views. International Journal of Disability, Development and Edu-cation, 53, 35-46.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10349120500510024
[17] Burgess, P. W., Alderman, N., Wilson, B. A., Evans, J. J., & Em-slie, H. (1996). Validity of the Battery: Relationship between Performance on the BADS and Ratings of Executive Problems. In B. A. Wilson (Ed.), BADS: Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome Manual (pp. 18-19). Thames Valley Test Company.
[18] Conners, C. K. (1995). Conners’ Continuous Performance Test Computer Program. Multi Health Systems Inc.
[19] Cortese, S., Kelly, C., Chabernaud, C., Proal, E., Di Martino, A., Milham, M. P. et al. (2012). Toward Systems Neuroscience of ADHD: A Meta-Analysis of 55 fMRI Studies. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 1038-1055.
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521
[20] Dige, N., & Wik, G. (2005). Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactiv-ity Disorder Identified by Neuropsychological Testing. International Journal of Neuroscience, 115, 169-183.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450590519058
[21] Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Glutting, J. J., & Watkins, M. W. (2007). ADHD and Achievement: Meta-Analysis of the Child, Adolescent and Adult Literatures and a Concomitant Study with College Students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 49-65.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194070400010401
[22] Ginani, G. E., Tufik, S., Bueno, O. F., Pradella-Hallinan, M., Rusted, J., & Pompéia, S. (2011). Acute Effects of Donepezil in Healthy Young Adults Underline the Fractionation of Exec-utive Functioning. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25, 1508-1516.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881110391832
[23] Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000). The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
https://doi.org/10.1037/t73087-000
[24] Goodman, D. W., Lasser, R. A., Babcock, T., Pucci, M. L., & Solanto, M. V. (2011). Managing ADHD across the Lifespan in the Primary Care Setting. Postgraduate Medicine, 123, 14-26.
https://doi.org/10.3810/pgm.2011.09.2456
[25] Groves, N. B., Kofler, M. J., Wells, E. L., Day, T. N., & Chan, E. S. (2020). An Examination of Relations among Working Memory, ADHD Symptoms, and Emotion Regulation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 48, 525-537.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00612-8
[26] Halleland, H. B., Sørensen, L., Posserud, M.-B., Haavik, J., & Lundervold, A. J. (2015). Occupational Status Is Compromised in Adults with ADHD and Psychometrically Defined Exec-utive Function Deficits. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23, 76-86.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714564622
[27] Heiligenstein, E., Guenther, G., Levy, A., Savino, F., & Fulwiler, J. (1999). Psychological and Academic Functioning in College Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of American College Health, 45, 35-39.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07448489909595644
[28] Hervey, A. S., Epstein, J. N., & Curry, J. F. (2004). Neuropsy-chology of Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analytic Review. Neuropsychology, 18, 485-503.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.485
[29] Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., & Altro, T. A. (2008). Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications. The ADHD Report, 16, 8-14.
https://doi.org/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8
[30] Kongs, S., Thompson, L., Iverson, G., & Heaton, R. (2000). WCST-64: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 Card Version: Professional Manual.
[31] Lee, D. H. (2005). Testing Executive Function Models of ADHD and Its Comorbid Conditions: A Latent Variable Approach. Texas A&M University.
[32] Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of Executive Functioning: Evidence from Children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 59-80.
https://doi.org/10.1348/026151003321164627
[33] Milioni, A. L. V., Chaim, T. M., Cavallet, M., de Oliveira, N. M., Annes, M., dos Santos, B., & Cunha, P. J. (2016). High IQ May “Mask” the Diagnosis of ADHD by Compensating for Deficits in Executive Functions in Treatment-Naïve Adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 455-464.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714554933
[34] Pallanti, S., & Salerno, L. (2020). The Burden of Adult ADHD in Comorbid Psychiatric and Neurological Disorders. Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39051-8
[35] Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive Functions and Developmental Psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 37, 51-87.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x
[36] Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore, G., & Isaacs, P. (2001). A Conceptual Model of Child Psychopathology: Implications for Understanding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Treatment Efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 48-58.
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3001_6
[37] Rashid, F. L., Morris, M. K., & Morris, R. D. (2001). Naming and Verbal Memory Skills in Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Reading Disability. Journal of Clin-ical Psychology, 57, 829-838.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.1052
[38] Reitan, R. M. & Wolfson, D. (1985). The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. Neuropsychology Press.
[39] Seidman, L., Biederman, J., Weber, W., Hatch, M., & Faraone, S. V. (1998). Neuropsychological Function in Adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 4, 260-268.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00392-2
[40] Silverstein, M. J., Faraone, S. V., Leon, T. L., Biederman, J., Spencer, T. J., & Adler, L. A. (2020). The Relationship between Executive Function Deficits and DSM-5-Defined ADHD Symptoms. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24, 41-51.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718804347
[41] Song, P., Zha, M., Yang, Q., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Rudan, I. (2021). The Prevalence of Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Global Health, 11, e04009.
https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.11.04009
[42] Spreen, O. & Benton, A. L. (1977). The Neurosensory Center Compre-hensive Examination for Aphasia. University of Victoria, Neuropsychology Laboratory.
[43] Stavro, G. M., Ettenhofer, M. L., & Nigg, J. T. (2007). Executive Functions and Adaptive Functioning in Young Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 324-334.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617707070348
[44] Stroop, J. R. (1992). Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reac-tions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 15-23.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.121.1.15
[45] Tarle, S. J. (2015). Working Memory and Behavioral Inhibition in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Re-Examination of Competing Core Processes. Oklahoma State Universi-ty.
[46] van Ewijk, H., Weeda, W. D., Heslenfeld, D. J., Luman, M., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J. et al. (2015). Neural Correlates of Visuospatial Working Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Healthy Controls. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 233, 233-242.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.07.003
[47] Vaz, L., Pradella-Hallinan, M., Bueno, O. F., & Pompéia, S. (2011). Acute Glucocorticoid Effects on the Multicomponent Model of Working Memory. Human Psychopharmacology, 26, 477-487.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.1230
[48] Verbruggen, F., & Logan, G. D. (2008). Response Inhibition in the Stop-Signal Paradigm. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 418-424.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.07.005
[49] Wechsler, D. (1981). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. The Psychological Corporation.
[50] Woods, S. P., Lovejoy, D. W., & Ball, J. D. (2002). Neuropsychological Characteristics of Adults with ADHD: A Comprehensive Review of Initial Studies. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16, 12-34.
https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.1.12.8336
[51] Yang, B. R., Chan, R. C. K., Gracia, N., Cao, X. Y., Zou, X. B., & Shum, D. Y. (2011). Cool and Hot Executive Functions in Medication-Naive Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Chil-dren. Psychological Medicine, 41, 2593-2602.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711000869
[52] Zelazo, P. D., Carter, A., Reznick, J. S., & Frye, D. (1997). Early Development of Executive Function: A Problem-Solving Framework. Review of General Psychology, 1, 198-226.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.198