全新世以来千百年尺度气候变化的驱动机制
Driving Mechanisms of Millennial- to Centennial-Scale Climate Change since the Holocene
DOI: 10.12677/ccrl.2026.152036, PDF, HTML, XML,   
作者: 王晨艺:福建师范大学地理研究所,福建 福州;福建师范大学地理科学学院,福建 福州;湿润亚热带生态–地理过程教育部重点实验室,福建 福州
关键词: 全新世千百年尺度气候变化驱动机制Holocene Millennial- to Centennial-Scale Climate Change Driving Mechanisms
摘要: 全新世作为距离人类时代最近的一个地质时期,其气候变化虽然相对于晚更新世冰期较为稳定,但仍存在显著的千百年尺度的气候波动。造成全新世以来气候波动的原因多种多样,尚未形成统一认识。本文通过对现有文献资料的综述,探讨了全新世以来千百年尺度气候变化的原因,包括太阳活动、地球轨道参数变化、冰川作用、火山活动、海洋环流及温室气体等因素的影响。
Abstract: The Holocene, as the geological epoch closest to the human era, has experienced relatively stable climate conditions compared to the glacial periods of the Late Pleistocene, yet it still exhibits significant climate fluctuations on millennial to centennial timescales. The causes of these climate fluctuations since the Holocene are diverse, and a unified understanding has not yet been reached. By reviewing existing literature, this paper explores the causes of millennial to centennial-scale climate changes since the Holocene, including the influences of solar activity, variations in Earth’s orbital parameters, glacial processes, volcanic activity, ocean circulation, and greenhouse gases.
文章引用:王晨艺. 全新世以来千百年尺度气候变化的驱动机制[J]. 气候变化研究快报, 2026, 15(2): 305-319. https://doi.org/10.12677/ccrl.2026.152036

1. 引言

近年来,随着气候突变事件的频繁发生,公众对未来气候变化的关注程度日益加深。全新世(11.7 ka B.P.),又称冰后期,是距离当前人类时代最近的一个地质时期。人类社会文明的全部历程,包括起源、演进、繁荣与进步,均在这一阶段内展开。全新世的气候变化与人类社会的发展过程紧密相关,因此,研究全新世内发生的千百年尺度气候波动,不仅对预估未来气候变化的趋势具有关键意义,而且在阐明气候变化与人类生存、发展及适应能力之间的内在联系方面,也具有重要的科学研究价值。在全新世气候研究中,一个长期存在的争议焦点是模型模拟与地质记录在温度趋势上的显著差异,即所谓的“全新世温度谜题”(Holocene Temperature Conundrum)。地质记录,尤其是基于海洋沉积物、冰芯、湖泊沉积物和孢粉等代用指标的研究,普遍显示全新世早期(约11.7~8.2 ka B.P.)存在一个明显的升温阶段,随后在中全新世(约8.2~4.2 ka B.P.)达到温度峰值,形成所谓的“全新世大暖期”,之后温度逐渐下降,直至近现代因人类活动导致温室气体浓度急剧上升而再次升温。这一温度变化趋势在北半球高纬度地区尤为明显,被视为轨道尺度上夏季太阳辐射变化驱动的自然气候演变的典型表现[1]-[12]

然而,与地质记录形成鲜明对比的是,许多基于物理过程的全球气候模型(GCMs)在模拟全新世温度变化时,往往无法重现这种中全新世温度峰值,反而倾向于显示一个相对平稳或持续降温的趋势,直到工业革命前夕。这种模型与观测之间的不一致,引发了科学界对全新世气候驱动机制的深入探讨。分析这种差异,关键在于理解不同驱动因子的作用及其在模型中的表达方式。季节性轨道强迫,特别是北半球夏季太阳辐射的强度变化,被认为是全新世温度变化的主要自然驱动力。夏季太阳辐射的增加导致地表温度上升,冰川融化,进而影响大气环流和海洋环流,形成正反馈机制,加剧温暖气候。然而,模型在模拟这一复杂过程时,可能未能充分捕捉到所有相关的反馈机制,如云量、植被覆盖、海洋热吸收和释放等,这些因素在不同季节和地区对温度有重要影响。另一方面,温室气体(如二氧化碳、甲烷)浓度的变化也是影响全新世气候的重要因素。地质记录显示,全新世期间温室气体浓度虽有波动,但总体上保持相对稳定,直到近现代才因人类活动而急剧上升。模型在模拟时,如果未能准确反映温室气体浓度与温度之间的非线性关系,或是低估了自然过程中温室气体的源汇变化,也可能导致模拟结果与地质记录不符。特别是,模型可能未能充分考虑到季节性差异在轨道强迫中的作用。夏季太阳辐射的增加是驱动中全新世温暖的主要因素,但模型可能未能精确模拟夏季增温如何通过大气和海洋环流影响全年温度,以及这种影响在不同地区的差异性。此外,模型对极地冰盖、海冰和积雪等反馈机制的模拟也可能存在不足,这些因素在调节全球温度方面起着关键作用[1]-[12]

在20世纪70年代之前,学界普遍认为全新世的气候比较稳定。然而,后续的研究发现,全新世气候的主要特征为渐进式变化与突变式气候事件并存。例如,全新世大暖期也存在多次干冷性气候突变事件。实际上,早在70年代初期,已有学者依据中国历史记载及北半球高纬度地区冰川活动记录,提出了全新世气候并不稳定的观点。但直到Bond等将北大西洋区域发现的千年尺度冰筏事件与太阳活动变化相关联,学术界才开始重视全新世气候突变事件[1]-[12]。而随着对“全新世温度谜题”研究的深入,科学家们正不断改进模型,提高对地质记录的解释能力,以期更准确地理解全新世乃至更长时间尺度的气候变化机制[1]-[12]

2. 外部因素

2.1. 太阳活动

太阳作为一颗持续进行核聚变反应的活跃恒星,其释放的辐射能量是驱动地球气候系统演变的核心动力。古气候记录显示,北大西洋冰筏沉积记录中的突变周期与太阳活动显著相关。Bond等人通过研究北大西洋冰筏沉积记录,识别出其中的突变周期,并将其与太阳活动进行关联分析,结果表明两者间存在显著相关性。在其他古气候记录中,同样发现了与太阳活动周期相近的气候波动现象[13]-[16]。太阳活动的变化对地球能量平衡具有直接作用[17]。近十几年的观测数据显示,大气层顶部由11年周期的太阳活动所引发的辐照度变化幅度约为1 W/m2,导致全球平均温度变化约为0.07℃。目前主要存在以下作用机制来阐释太阳活动对地球气候的影响:

在太阳活动对气候系统贡献率的估算方面,不同学者基于观测数据、气候模型及理论机制的研究存在显著差异。IPCC第五次评估报告指出,1951~2010年全球地表平均温度上升中,超过一半极可能由人为温室气体排放主导,而太阳活动周期性变化(如11年太阳黑子周期)对全球温度波动的贡献仅约0.1℃左右,难以解释20世纪70年代末以来的加速增暖趋势。然而,部分研究通过代用资料重建与数值模拟提出,20世纪上半叶全球增暖可能受自然因素(包括太阳活动增强)显著影响,例如太阳辐射变化与北极地区气温升高、北半球冬季中高纬度纬向环流加强存在关联;而21世纪初的增暖则更多归因于温室气体排放,甚至有研究认为太阳活动可能对近20年气候产生弱降温效应。在机制层面,学者对太阳活动影响气候的途径存在争议:一类观点强调“自上而下”的紫外辐射–平流层臭氧化学过程,通过行星波传播调控对流层环流(如NAO相位变化);另一类则关注“自下而上”的总辐照度变化,但太阳常数仅0.1%的波动难以直接驱动对流层气候异常。此外,太阳活动与ENSO的相互作用机制尚未明确,有研究指出强太阳活动可能放大厄尔尼诺暖事件对北太平洋急流的影响,而弱太阳活动则减弱ENSO与PNA遥相关的关联强度。这种估算差异反映了太阳活动影响气候的多尺度复杂性——其信号在极地、热带太平洋及季风区等敏感区域可能被放大,但全球尺度贡献率仍受限于太阳辐射变化的微小幅度及气候系统内部变率的干扰[17]-[26] (图1)。

此外,太阳紫外线辐照度的变化可以通过影响大气化学成分及动力学过程,间接影响气候变化。当紫外线辐射强度增强时,地球平流层中的臭氧含量增加,导致平流层风场结构改变和吸收的太阳辐射量增加,进而造成平流层温度升高,通过动力和热力作用传导至对流层,影响对流层的温度和风的变化[27] [28]。宇宙射线通量的改变可能通过调控云凝结核数量,影响云量分布,导致气候产生变[29] [30]。Svensmark等通过研究宇宙射线通量与云层形成的关系,发现太阳活动与云层覆盖之间存在显著关联[31] [32]

2.2. 地球轨道变化

太阳辐射是地球表面热量的主要来源,其辐射强度不仅受太阳自身活动的影响,地球的轨道几何特征也可以通过调节入射太阳辐射的变化对气候产生影响,这一机制被称为轨道强迫理论,或米兰科维奇轨道强迫理论[33]。20世纪30年代,米兰科维奇提出了地球轨道变化对地球气候的影响[34],从轨道偏心率、地轴倾斜度和岁差三个角度阐释了地球轨道尺度的气候波。20世纪30年代,米兰科维奇提出了地

(A) 过去9000 a太阳总辐照强度变化[21];(B) 标准化的海洋堆积冰筏碎片(IRD)记录[51];(C) 石笋DA δ18O记录[51];(D) 大气中的δ14C记录[51]。较高的太阳辐照度(偏负的δ14C)对应于较强的亚洲季风活动(偏负的DA δ18O值) [51]

Figure 1. Reconstruction of solar activity changes over the past 9000 a

1. 过去9000 a太阳活动变化重建

球轨道变化对地球气候的影响,从轨道偏心率、地轴倾斜度和岁差三个角度阐释了地球轨道尺度的气候波动。地球轨道存在千年尺度的周期性变化,现存主要观点认为,地球轨道的变化会调节太阳辐射量在时空上的分配,进而驱动气候变化,具体表现在冰雪覆盖率变化、地表反照率变化,以及大气水汽含量、海洋环流、大气中CO2浓度等一系列因素的变化[35]-[41]。全新世期间,北半球除劳伦泰冰盖影响外的地区,其气候变化主要受轨道强迫的影响。11.7~7 ka B.P.期间,北半球夏季日照较多,但由于冰盖的调节作用,气候呈温和凉爽的特征。7~4.2 ka B.P.期间,北半球中高纬度地区夏季温度较高,季风活动相较于全新世早期有所减弱。4.2 ka B.P.之后,北半球夏季日照减少,温度下降,气候逐渐转冷[42]-[45]

3. 内部因素

在全新世千百年尺度的气候波动中,除天文因素影响外,地球内部的各类反馈机制也发挥着极为关键的作用。即便没有太阳辐射的波动,地球内部因素的相互作用同样可以引起全新世出现千百年尺度的气候波动[46]

3.1. 冰川作用

全新世早期在北美和欧亚大陆还存在大型陆地冰川,如芬诺斯卡迪亚冰盖一直持续到9 ka B.P.,劳伦泰冰盖的大量残余部分最晚到7 ka B.P.才完全消失。进入全新世中晚期,随着温度下降,冰川在3.3~2.4 ka B.P.期间,以及过去几个世纪的小冰期时段,均发生了不同程度的扩张[47]-[49]。在全新世早期,北半球冰川呈现出百年尺度的增长态势,这一现象与劳伦泰冰盖融化后淡水注入大西洋密切相关。劳伦泰冰盖融化产生的淡水大量注入大西洋,致使拉布拉多海深水流的形成速度减缓,大西洋经向翻转环流以及相关的海洋热输送量减少了约30%,伴随着北大西洋地区出现显著降温,导致冰川扩张。在8 ka B.P.以后,北半球冰川活动的长期变化趋势与地球轨道参数变化相关,冰川总体呈现退缩趋势,但其规模并未缩减至现代冰川的水平。而在4 ka B.P.以后,冰川的扩张进程与北大西洋地区的冷却事件在时间上基本一致,可归因于北极地区海冰范围扩张,导致区域温度下降[50]-[60] (图2)。此外,冰川对太阳辐射具有较高的反射率,其反射强度可达65%~80%,通过反射机制伴随自身面积的变化而对地球气候产生影响,但存在明显的滞后效应。冰川融化的淡水也会导致气候波动,如全新世早期劳伦泰冰盖消融产生的融水,一部分蓄积在冰封湖内,另一部分汇入海洋,通过影响温盐环流对气候产生影响。此外,冰川消融后,由于其所承载的负荷减轻,可能会引发火山喷发,对气候产生影响[61]-[67]

全新世早中期,热带地区冰川活动的模拟结果显示,其变化趋势与地球轨道作用力所产生的影响相似,但依据沉积记录重建的冰川活动[56]与模拟记录相反[64]。这种模拟结果与沉积记录重建结果之间的矛盾,可能是由于热带地区的冰川分辨率低、数据量少所导致。此外,在3 ka B.P.,有沉积记录显示,南乔治半岛地区的冰川在气候温暖时期也出现扩张趋势[65],这种现象的发生机制尚不明确,是否与冰川活动的定年问题存在关联有待进一步研究。

3.2. 火山活动

火山活动是气候变化的主要驱动因素之一,对地球气候系统的演变具有极为重要的影响。火山活动主要通过与其他气候要素相互作用以及触发一系列反馈机制,诱发全球百年至千年规模的气候变化,在全新世百年至千年尺度的温度变化方面发挥重要作用[68]-[71]。全新世期间火山活动较为频繁,尤其在8.6~8 ka B.P.期间和全新世后期的小冰期时期,存在一系列大规模的火山喷发事件。9~8 ka B.P.期间和全新世后期的小冰期时期,火山活动尤为强烈。特别是在8.2 ka降温事件期间,火山活动强度的增强可能引发了该时期的温度下降。晚全新世火山爆发集中的时期与气候冷期相对应,主要集中在3~2 ka B.P.前后[72] [73] (图3)。

(A) Hajeren湖中干物质密度指示冰川变化[68];(B) Vårr Bilt等的记录,使用标准化的钛与非相干散射和相干散射之和的比值指示冰川变化[69];(C) Okstindan重建冰川[70];(D) 冰川推进总量[50]

Figure 2. Changes in Holocene glacial activity

2. 全新世冰川活动变化

(A) 格陵兰岛火山指数,以格林兰岛的火山硫酸盐浓度(×109)指示[8];(B) 南极洲火山指数,以南极洲的火山硫酸盐通量指示(kg/km2),以100 a为一个档次[8]

Figure 3. Holocene volcanic activity

3. 全新世火山活动

火山活动对气候变化的影响受多种因素制约。首先,不同类型火山喷发对气候产生影响的途径和机制存在差异。如中酸性的普林尼式火山喷发以及中小规模的玄武质裂隙式喷发,主要通过释放大量火山灰和气溶胶等物质,阻挡太阳辐射到达地表,造成气候变冷,引起短期内的气候变化。而大火成岩省在喷发过程中会释放大量温室气体,增强大气的保温作用,导致气候变暖,但全新世期间未发现大火成岩省的喷发记录,主要以中小规模的火山活动为主。其次,火山喷发物质要能够对气候产生显著影响,需满足一定的喷发量条件。其喷发量需在至少5 Mt的二氧化硫等气溶胶注入到平流层中,这些气溶胶进入平流层后会弥散数周,并停留数年时间,进而对地表温度产生环境效应。火山所处的地理位置差异以及喷发季节的不同,也会造成不同气候的变化。高纬度地区的火山活动影响范围相对局限,但平流层底界较低,火山喷发所释放的物质能够更容易到达平流层。低纬度地区火山喷发的物质能够向南北两个半球广泛扩散,产生的影响范围更为广泛。季节上,冬季火山喷发对气候产生的影响相较于夏季喷发而言要更小[74]-[81]。在格陵兰的温度重建研究中发现千百年时间尺度的温度下降、极地大气环流增强和亚洲季风活动的减弱等现象,与火山活动造成的千百年尺度的寒冷期一致。在后期的气候模拟中发现,北半球地表温度在千年尺度的气候变率与火山影响指数高度相关,超过80%的北半球气候变率可由火山强迫机制来解释。气候模拟实验发现,若每10 a左右发生一定规模的火山爆发,可能对地球造成百年或千年尺度的降温。此外,地球内部的反馈作用还可以保存火山爆发对气候的影响,如火山活动引发的突然夏季冷却,可通过海冰/海洋反馈维持,诱发北半球十年到百年的冷却[82] [83]

(A) 委内瑞拉近海Cariaco盆地PC56号岩芯8.2 ka B.P.事件灰阶,向上表示颜色较深的沉积物[61];(B) GISP2岩芯高分辨率δ18O冰芯记录[61];(C) 全新世冷期总和[50];(D) 委内瑞拉近海Cariaco盆地PC56号岩芯全新世期间的灰阶,向上表示颜色较深的沉积物[61]。蓝色条带代表8.2 ka B.P.冷事件。黄色条带代表全新世以来的6次冷事件。

Figure 4. Comparison of circulation and Holocene cold events

4. 环流与全新世冷事件对比

(A) 30˚N~90˚N的温度重建;(B) 30˚N~30˚S的温度重建;(C) 30˚S~90˚S的温度重建;(D) 全新世温室气体强迫。

Figure 5. Greenhouse gas forcing versus temperature [8]

5. 温室气体强迫与温度对比[8]

3.3. 环流系统

海洋覆盖了地球表面71%的面积,在地球气候调节机制中占据关键地位。现代测试发现,在中高纬度地区,80%~90%的热量传输依赖于大气与海洋的共同作用;而在长时间尺度上,海洋环流对热量进行输送与分配[84]。世界大洋的深层水团主要汇聚于北大西洋和南极这两个区域,两者在不同的地质时期其深层水团的通量存在差异。当有大量淡水注入海洋时,表层海水的盐度会随之降低,引发海水分层现象,抑制深层水的形成,致使大西洋经向翻转环流减弱甚至停闭,使低纬度向高纬度输送的热量减少,导致中高纬度地区气候变冷。如全新世早期,劳伦泰冰盖融水流入海洋,对温盐环流产生影响,使得北大西洋深水流与拉布拉多海难以形成深度对流,从而引起北大西洋地区气候变冷,导致“9.3 ka B.P.”、“8.2 ka B.P.”等一系列气候事件的发生[85] [86] (图4)。

潮汐的周期性作用同样会对海洋环流产生影响,进而影响气候。通过对比地中海的花粉记录以及来自摩洛哥、冰岛、挪威和以色列等地的沉积记录,发现记录存在周期约为1750 a的气候波动,这一周期与潮汐作用以及月球作用周期(1800 a)相近,据此推测,这种周期性变化是由潮汐作用所引起的深层流内部振荡所致,且与北大西洋表层海洋环流动力学密切相关[87]-[90]。此外,在全新世气候演变研究中,ENSO与NAO的阶段性特征及其对区域气候的驱动作用也备受关注。基于南海北部珊瑚生长速率重建的高分辨记录及CCSMv2模拟显示,中全新世期间,受南半球季节性减弱驱动,东南信风增强抑制了赤道东太平洋离岸流,导致ENSO变率显著减弱,以持续性拉尼娜态为主;而晚全新世期间,随着南半球季节性增强及海洋–大气内力主导,ENSO变率增强并转为强厄尔尼诺态,其极端事件通过Bjerknes反馈机制显著影响季风区降水格局,如印度季风增强与中国东部“南涝北旱”现象的关联。与此同时,NAO的演化受北大西洋扩张及海陆热力对比调控,中全新世NAO指数偏弱导致欧洲冬季温和与东亚暖冬频率上升,而晚全新世NAO变率增强通过海陆遥相关及副高协同作用,间接调节江淮流域梅雨与印度季风路径。因此,ENSO与NAO在全新世的演变分别由轨道尺度季节性变化与大陆构型演化驱动,二者通过直接海洋–大气相互作用或间接遥相关效应,共同塑造了季风区降水的年际–年代际变率,为理解自然变率与人类活动对气候系统的协同影响提供了关键依据[80]-[90]

3.4. 其他因素

在全新世期间,大气中温室气体的含量发生了显著变化。早全新世时,大气中二氧化碳的含量处于较低水平;中晚全新世,其体积分数增加了约20 × 106;工业革命至今,二氧化碳的体积分数已经超过417 × 106。尽管温室气体增加所产生的直接辐射强迫较小,但通过气候系统内部的正反馈作用,已经造成全球地表温度从7 ka B.P.到现在已经动态升温0.2℃~0.8℃。因此,温室气体是导致中晚全新世气温小幅上升的主要驱动因素。但在更为精细的时间尺度上,如百年、十年尺度的气候波动中,无法确定温室气体的变化是引起气候波动的驱动因素,还是对气候变化的响应[91]-[94] (图5)。

4. 总结

全新世千百年尺度的气候突变事件受多种因素共同调控,其主导机制存在显著时空差异。从千年尺度来看,大洋温盐环流与地球轨道参数变化是关键驱动因素:前者通过热量–盐分再分配调控全球能量平衡,例如北大西洋深水形成强度的突变可能引发跨半球气候响应;后者通过改变太阳辐射纬向分布影响季风系统,如6000年前北半球夏季太阳辐射减弱与亚洲季风衰退的同步性已被多环芳烃和石笋氧同位素记录证实。在百年尺度上,太阳活动、火山活动与海洋环流构成主要外强迫:太阳黑子周期与ENSO事件的非线性耦合可能解释中世纪暖期与小冰期的温度波动;火山气溶胶的半球不对称分布对NAO相位转换的调控作用,在格陵兰冰芯硫酸盐记录与树轮宽度序列的对比研究中得到印证;而海洋热盐环流变异对热带太平洋海温梯度的影响,则是理解全新世中期厄尔尼诺活动减弱的重要突破口。

过去一万年的气候波动显示,外部驱动力与气候系统内部反馈的相互作用存在显著阶段特征。例如,中全新世(8~4 ka B.P.)轨道强迫减弱背景下,植被–大气反馈对季风降水的放大效应可能超过太阳辐射变化本身;而晚全新世(4~0 ka B.P.)人类活动增强阶段,土地利用变化对区域水循环的扰动开始与太阳活动共同塑造气候异常。然而,当前研究仍存在三大认知空白:(1) 反馈机制的不确定性:例如温盐环流变异如何通过云–辐射反馈调节极地放大效应,目前缺乏高分辨率模拟与多指标联合验证;(2) 代用指标的季节性偏差:石笋氧同位素主要反映夏季降水,而湖泊沉积物粒度可能受冬季风影响,导致年际气候信号解译存在偏差;(3) 多尺度耦合的量化难题:百年尺度太阳活动与千年尺度轨道强迫的协同作用机制尚未建立相关模型。

针对上述空白,未来研究需聚焦三个关键科学问题:其一,构建包含生物地球化学反馈的地球系统模型,通过参数化方案优化,定量解析全新世不同阶段气候突变中内部反馈的作用;其二,开发跨季节代用指标合成方法,例如结合树木年轮宽度(生长季)与最大密度(前一年冬季)重建年际温度序列,结合珊瑚Sr/Ca比值(夏季)与δ18O (冬季)重建热带海温年循环;其三,建立多尺度外强迫耦合诊断框架,利用机器学习算法识别太阳活动–火山活动–海洋环流组合情景下的气候响应模式,重点揭示中世纪暖期向小冰期转型期间(13~19世纪)的驱动机制转换阈值。解决这些问题将推动气候突变研究从现象描述转向机制理解,为评估当前全球变暖背景下气候系统临界点风险提供历史类比依据。

参考文献

[1] Denton, G.H. and Karlén, W. (1973) Holocene Climatic Variations—Their Pattern and Possible Cause. Quaternary Research, 3, 155-205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[2] Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S.J., Clausen, H.B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Gundestrup, N.S., Hammer, C.U., et al. (1993) Evidence for General Instability of Past Climate from a 250-Kyr Ice-Core Record. Nature, 364, 218-220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[3] Mayewski, P.A., Rohling, E.E., Curt Stager, J., Karlén, W., Maasch, K.A., Meeker, L.D., et al. (2004) Holocene Climate Variability. Quaternary Research, 62, 243-255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[4] Shi, Y.F., Kong, Z.C., Wang, S.M., et al. (1993) Climate and Environment during the Peak Stage of the Holocene Megathermal in China. Science in China: Series B, 23, 865-873.
[5] Zhu, K.Z. (1972) A Preliminary Study on Climatic Changes in China over the Past Five Millennia. Acta Archaeologica Sinica, 1, 15-38.
[6] Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., et al. (1997) A Pervasive Millennial-Scale Cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and Glacial Climates. Science, 278, 1257-1266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[7] Bond, G., Kromer, B., Evans, M.N., et al. (2001) Persistent Solar Influence on North Atlantic Surface Circulation during the Holocene. Science, 294, 2130-2136.
[8] Marcott, S.A., Shakun, J.D., Clark, P.U. and Mix, A.C. (2013) A Reconstruction of Regional and Global Temperature for the Past 11,300 Years. Science, 339, 1198-1201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[9] Wang, S.W. (2008) The 8.2 ka B.P. Cold Event. Advances in Climate Change Research, 4, 193-194.
[10] Wang, S.W. and Dong, G.R. (2002) Assessment of Environmental Evolution in Western China. Volume I: Environmental Characteristics and Their Evolution in Western China. Science Press.
[11] Liu, Z.Y., Lu, Z.Y., Wen, X.Y., et al. (2014) Evolution and Forcing Mechanisms of El Niño over the Past 21, 000 Years. Nature, 515, 550-553.
[12] Denton, G.H. and Broecker, W.S. (2008) Wobbly Ocean Conveyor Circulation during the Holocene? Quaternary Science Reviews, 27, 1939-1950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[13] Hong, Y.T. and Jiang, H.B. (1998) Climatic Fluctuations and Solar Variations over the Past 5, 000 Years. Science in China: Series D, 26, 491-497.
[14] Kern, A.K., Harzhauser, M., Piller, W.E., Mandic, O. and Soliman, A. (2012) Strong Evidence for the Influence of Solar Cycles on a Late Miocene Lake System Revealed by Biotic and Abiotic Proxies. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 329, 124-136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[15] Büntgen, U., Myglan, V.S., Ljungqvist, F.C., McCormick, M., Di Cosmo, N., Sigl, M., et al. (2016) Cooling and Societal Change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD. Nature Geoscience, 9, 231-236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[16] Shindell, D.T., Schmidt, G.A., Mann, M.E., Rind, D. and Waple, A. (2001) Solar Forcing of Regional Climate Change during the Maunder Minimum. Science, 294, 2149-2152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[17] Engels, S. and van Geel, B. (2012) The Effects of Changing Solar Activity on Climate: Contributions from Palaeoclimatological Studies. Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate, 2, A09. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[18] Gray, L.J., Beer, J., Geller, M., et al. (2010) Solar Influences on Climate. Reviews of Geophysics, 48, 1-53.
[19] Crowley, T.J. (2000) Causes of Climate Change over the Past 1000 Years. Science, 289, 270-277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[20] Usoskin, I.G. (2017) A History of Solar Activity over Millennia. Living Reviews in Solar Physics, 14, Article No. 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[21] Steinhilber, F., Beer, J. and Fröhlich, C. (2009) Total Solar Irradiance during the Holocene. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, 1-5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[22] Tan, M., Shao, X.M., Liu, X.H., et al. (2006) Integrated Temperature Records from Stalagmites and Tree Rings in China over the Past Millennium. Advances in Climate Change Research, 2, 113-116.
[23] Shapiro, A.I., Schmutz, W., Rozanov, E., Schoell, M., Haberreiter, M., Shapiro, A.V., et al. (2011) A New Approach to the Long-Term Reconstruction of the Solar Irradiance Leads to Large Historical Solar Forcing. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 529, A67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[24] Nesje, A., Dahl, S.O. and Bakke, J. (2004) Were Abrupt Lateglacial and Early-Holocene Climatic Changes in Northwest Europe Linked to Freshwater Outbursts to the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans? The Holocene, 14, 299-310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[25] Cubasch, U., Zorita, E., Kaspar, F., Gonzalez-Rouco, J.F., Storch, H.V. and Prömmel, K. (2006) Simulation of the Role of Solar and Orbital Forcing on Climate. Advances in Space Research, 37, 1629-1634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[26] Meehl, G.A., Washington, W.M., Ammann, C.M., Arblaster, J.M., Wigley, T.M.L. and Tebaldi, C. (2004) Combinations of Natural and Anthropogenic Forcings in Twentieth-Century Climate. Journal of Climate, 17, 3721-3727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[27] Haigh, J.D. (1996) The Impact of Solar Variability on Climate. Science, 272, 981-984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[28] Lockwood, M., Bell, C., Woollings, T., Harrison, R.G., Gray, L.J. and Haigh, J.D. (2010) Top-Down Solar Modulation of Climate: Evidence for Centennial-Scale Change. Environmental Research Letters, 5, Article 034008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[29] Lockwood, M. (2012) Solar Influence on Global and Regional Climates. Surveys in Geophysics, 33, 503-534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[30] Svensmark, H. and Friis-Christensen, E. (1997) Variation of Cosmic Ray Flux and Global Cloud Coverage—A Missing Link in Solar-Climate Relationships. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 59, 1225-1232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[31] Svensmark, H., Bondo, T. and Svensmark, J. (2009) Cosmic Ray Decreases Affect Atmospheric Aerosols and Clouds. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, 1-4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[32] Kirkby, J., Curtius, J., Almeida, J., Dunne, E., Duplissy, J., Ehrhart, S., et al. (2011) Role of Sulphuric Acid, Ammonia and Galactic Cosmic Rays in Atmospheric Aerosol Nucleation. Nature, 476, 429-433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[33] Thirumalai, K., Clemens, S.C. and Partin, J.W. (2020) Methane, Monsoons, and Modulation of Millennial-Scale Climate. Geophysical Research Letters, 47, e2020GL087613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[34] Yang, Z.G. (2001) Variations in Earth’s Orbital Elements and the Quaternary Glacial Periods. Progress in Astronomy, 19, 445-456.
[35] Wang, P.X., Tian, J., Huang, E.Q., et al. (2018) Earth System and Evolution. Science Press.
[36] Berger, A. (1988) Milankovitch Theory and Climate. Reviews of Geophysics, 26, 624-657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[37] Shi, Z.G., Lei, J., Zhou, P., et al. (2020) Numerical Simulation of Orbital-Scale Climate Evolution Mechanisms in Asia: History and Prospects. Quaternary Sciences, 40, 10.
[38] Renssen, H., Seppä, H., Heiri, O., Roche, D.M., Goosse, H. and Fichefet, T. (2009) The Spatial and Temporal Complexity of the Holocene Thermal Maximum. Nature Geoscience, 2, 411-414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[39] Alverson, K. (2003) Global Change in the Holocene. Advancing Earth and Space Sciences, 85, 204-214.
[40] Wanner, H., Beer, J., Bütikofer, J., Crowley, T.J., Cubasch, U., Flückiger, J., et al. (2008) Mid-to Late Holocene Climate Change: An Overview. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27, 1791-1828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[41] George, H., Denton, W. and Research, K.J.Q. (1973) Holocene Climatic Variations Their Pattern and Possible Cause. Quaternary Research, 3, 155-205.
[42] Zhang, X., Barker, S., Knorr, G., Lohmann, G., Drysdale, R., Sun, Y., et al. (2021) Direct Astronomical Influence on Abrupt Climate Variability. Nature Geoscience, 14, 819-826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[43] Notaro, M., Wang, Y., Liu, Z., Gallimore, R. and Levis, S. (2007) Combined Statistical and Dynamical Assessment of Simulated Vegetation-Rainfall Interactions in North Africa during the Mid-Holocene1. Global Change Biology, 14, 347-368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[44] Sun, Y., McManus, J.F., Clemens, S.C., Zhang, X., Vogel, H., Hodell, D.A., et al. (2021) Persistent Orbital Influence on Millennial Climate Variability through the Pleistocene. Nature Geoscience, 14, 812-818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[45] Ferris, D.G., Cole-Dai, J., Reyes, A.R. and Budner, D.M. (2011) South Pole Ice Core Record of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions in the First and Second Millennia A.D. and Evidence of a Large Eruption in the Tropics around 535 A.D. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, D17308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[46] Khider, D., Jackson, C.S. and Stott, L.D. (2014) Assessing Millennial-Scale Variability during the Holocene: A Perspective from the Western Tropical Pacific. Paleoceanography, 29, 143-159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[47] Lindén, M., Möller, P., Björck, S. and Sandgren, P. (2006) Holocene Shore Displacement and Deglaciation Chronology in Norrbotten, Sweden. Boreas, 35, 1-22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[48] Carlson, A.E., LeGrande, A.N., Oppo, D.W., Came, R.E., Schmidt, G.A., Anslow, F.S., et al. (2008) Rapid Early Holocene Deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Nature Geoscience, 1, 620-624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[49] Solomina, O.N., Bradley, R.S., Jomelli, V., Geirsdottir, A., Kaufman, D.S., Koch, J., et al. (2016) Glacier Fluctuations during the Past 2000 Years. Quaternary Science Reviews, 149, 61-90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[50] Wanner, H., Solomina, O., Grosjean, M., Ritz, S.P. and Jetel, M. (2011) Structure and Origin of Holocene Cold Events. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30, 3109-3123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[51] Wang, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R.L., He, Y., Kong, X., An, Z., et al. (2005) The Holocene Asian Monsoon: Links to Solar Changes and North Atlantic Climate. Science, 308, 854-857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[52] Zhang, C. and Mischke, S. (2009) A Lateglacial and Holocene Lake Record from the Nianbaoyeze Mountains and Inferences of Lake, Glacier and Climate Evolution on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 1970-1983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[53] Ivy-Ochs, S., Kerschner, H., Maisch, M., Christl, M., Kubik, P.W. and Schlüchter, C. (2009) Latest Pleistocene and Holocene Glacier Variations in the European Alps. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 2137-2149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[54] Menounos, B., Osborn, G., Clague, J., et al. (2009) Latest Pleistocene and Holocene Glacier Fluctuations in Western Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews, 1877, 71-81.
[55] Putnam, A.E., Schaefer, J.M., Denton, G.H., Barrell, D.J.A., Finkel, R.C., Andersen, B.G., et al. (2012) Regional Climate Control of Glaciers in New Zealand and Europe during the Pre-Industrial Holocene. Nature Geoscience, 5, 627-630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[56] Rodbell, D.T., Seltzer, G.O., Mark, B.G., Smith, J.A. and Abbott, M.B. (2008) Clastic Sediment Flux to Tropical Andean Lakes: Records of Glaciation and Soil Erosion. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27, 1612-1626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[57] Oerlemans, J. (2005) Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records. Science, 308, 675-677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[58] Solomina, O.N., Bradley, R.S., Hodgson, D.A., Ivy-Ochs, S., Jomelli, V., Mackintosh, A.N., et al. (2015) Holocene Glacier Fluctuations. Quaternary Science Reviews, 111, 9-34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[59] Holzhauser, H., Magny, M. and Zumbuühl, H.J. (2005) Glacier and Lake-Level Variations in West-Central Europe over the Last 3500 Years. The Holocene, 15, 789-801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[60] Beedle, M.J., Menounos, B., Luckman, B.H. and Wheate, R. (2009) Annual Push Moraines as Climate Proxy. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, 1-5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[61] Alley, R. and Agustsdottir, A. (2005) The 8k Event: Cause and Consequences of a Major Holocene Abrupt Climate Change. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 1123-1149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[62] Gayer, E., Lavé, J., Pik, R. and France-Lanord, C. (2006) Monsoonal Forcing of Holocene Glacier Fluctuations in Ganesh Himal (Central Nepal) Constrained by Cosmogenic 3he Exposure Ages of Garnets. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 252, 275-288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[63] Miller, G.H., Briner, J.P., Refsnider, K.A., Lehman, S.J., Geirsdóttir, Á., Larsen, D.J., et al. (2013) Substantial Agreement on the Timing and Magnitude of Late Holocene Ice Cap Expansion between East Greenland and the Eastern Canadian Arctic: A Commentary on Lowell. Quaternary Science Reviews, 77, 239-245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[64] Jomelli, V., Favier, V., Vuille, M., Braucher, R., Martin, L., et al. (2014) A Major Advance of Tropical Andean Glaciers during the Antarctic Cold Reversal. Nature, 513, 224-228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[65] Bentley, M., Evans, D., Fogwill, C., Hansom, J., Sugden, D. and Kubik, P. (2007) Glacial Geomorphology and Chronology of Deglaciation, South Georgia, Sub-Antarctic. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 644-677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[66] Fisher, T.G., Smith, D.G. and Andrews, J.T. (2002) Preboreal Oscillation Caused by a Glacial Lake Agassiz Flood. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21, 873-878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[67] Zhang, X., Lohmann, G., Knorr, G. and Purcell, C. (2014) Abrupt Glacial Climate Shifts Controlled by Ice Sheet Changes. Nature, 512, 290-294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[68] van der Bilt, W.G.M., Bakke, J., Vasskog, K., D'Andrea, W.J., Bradley, R.S. and Ólafsdóttir, S. (2015) Reconstruction of Glacier Variability from Lake Sediments Reveals Dynamic Holocene Climate in Svalbard. Quaternary Science Reviews, 126, 201-218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[69] Røthe, T.O., Bakke, J., Støren, E.W.N. and Bradley, R.S. (2018) Reconstructing Holocene Glacier and Climate Fluctuations from Lake Sediments in Vårfluesjøen, Northern Spitsbergen. Frontiers in Earth Science, 6, Article 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[70] Bakke, J., Dahl, S.O., Paasche, Ø., Riis Simonsen, J., Kvisvik, B., Bakke, K., et al. (2010) A Complete Record of Holocene Glacier Variability at Austre Okstindbreen, Northern Norway: An Integrated Approach. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 1246-1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[71] Li, P.Y., Liu, X.M., Liu, Z., et al. (2012) Volcanic Impacts on Global Climate Changes. Journal of Subtropical Resources and Environment, 7, 83-88.
[72] Sigl, M., Winstrup, M., McConnell, J.R., Welten, K.C., Plunkett, G., Ludlow, F., et al. (2015) Timing and Climate Forcing of Volcanic Eruptions for the Past 2,500 Years. Nature, 523, 543-549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[73] Kobashi, T., Menviel, L., Jeltsch-Thömmes, A., Vinther, B.M., Box, J.E., Muscheler, R., et al. (2017) Volcanic Influence on Centennial to Millennial Holocene Greenland Temperature Change. Scientific Reports, 7, Article No. 1441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[74] Guo, Z.F. and Liu, J.Q. (2002) Research Progress on Volcanic Activity and Climate Change. Advances in Earth Science, 17, 595-604.
[75] Marshall, L.R., Maters, E.C., Schmidt, A., Timmreck, C., Robock, A. and Toohey, M. (2022) Volcanic Effects on Climate: Recent Advances and Future Avenues. Bulletin of Volcanology, 84, Article No. 54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[76] Toohey, M., Krüger, K., Schmidt, H., Timmreck, C., Sigl, M., Stoffel, M., et al. (2019) Disproportionately Strong Climate Forcing from Extratropical Explosive Volcanic Eruptions. Nature Geoscience, 12, 100-107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[77] Kravitz, B. and Robock, A. (2011) Climate Effects of High-Latitude Volcanic Eruptions: Role of the Time of Year. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, D01105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[78] Licciardi, J.M., Kurz, M.D. and Curtice, J.M. (2007) Glacial and Volcanic History of Icelandic Table Mountains from Cosmogenic 3he Exposure Ages. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 1529-1546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[79] Nowell, D.A.G., Jones, M.C. and Pyle, D.M. (2006) Episodic Quaternary Volcanism in France and Germany. Journal of Quaternary Science, 21, 645-675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[80] Bacon, C.R. and Lanphere, M.A. (2006) Eruptive History and Geochronology of Mount Mazama and the Crater Lake Region, Oregon. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 118, 1331-1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[81] Huybers, P. and Langmuir, C. (2009) Feedback between Deglaciation, Volcanism, and Atmospheric CO2. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 286, 479-491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[82] Wan, L.F., Liu, J., Gao, C.C., et al. (2020) A Simulation Study on the Impact of Holocene Volcanic Eruptions on Temperature Change Trends. Quaternary Sciences, 40, Article 14.
[83] Miller, G.H., Geirsdóttir, Á., Zhong, Y., Larsen, D.J., Otto-Bliesner, B.L., Holland, M.M., et al. (2012) Abrupt Onset of the Little Ice Age Triggered by Volcanism and Sustained by Sea-Ice/Ocean Feedbacks. Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L02708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[84] Trenberth, K.E., Caron, J.M. and Stepaniak, D.P. (2001) The Atmospheric Energy Budget and Implications for Surface Fluxes and Ocean Heat Transports. Climate Dynamics, 17, 259-276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[85] Marshall, J. and Speer, K. (2012) Closure of the Meridional Overturning Circulation through Southern Ocean Upwelling. Nature Geoscience, 5, 171-180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[86] Renssen, H., Goosse, H., Crosta, X. and Roche, D.M. (2010) Early Holocene Laurentide Ice Sheet Deglaciation Causes Cooling in the High-Latitude Southern Hemisphere through Oceanic Teleconnection. Paleoceanography, 25, PA3204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[87] Wunsch, C. (2002) What Is the Thermohaline Circulation? Science, 298, 1179-1181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[88] Toggweiler, J.R. and Samuels, B. (1998) On the Ocean’s Large-Scale Circulation near the Limit of No Vertical Mixing. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 28, 1832-1852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[89] Kuhlbrodt, T., Griesel, A., Montoya, M., Levermann, A., Hofmann, M. and Rahmstorf, S. (2007) On the Driving Processes of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Reviews of Geophysics, 45, 1-32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[90] Hoogakker, B.A.A., Chapman, M.R., McCave, I.N., Hillaire-Marcel, C., Ellison, C.R.W., Hall, I.R., et al. (2011) Dynamics of North Atlantic Deep Water Masses during the Holocene. Paleoceanography, 26, PA4214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[91] Ren, G. (2000) Decline of the Mid-to Late Holocene Forests in China: Climatic Change or Human Impact? Journal of Quaternary Science, 15, 273-281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[92] Kutzbach, J.E., Vavrus, S.J., Ruddiman, W.F. and Philippon-Berthier, G. (2011) Comparisons of Atmosphere-Ocean Simulations of Greenhouse Gas-Induced Climate Change for Pre-Industrial and Hypothetical ‘No-Anthropogenic’ Radiative Forcing, Relative to Present Day. The Holocene, 21, 793-801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[93] Baker, J.L., Lachniet, M.S., Chervyatsova, O., Asmerom, Y. and Polyak, V.J. (2017) Holocene Warming in Western Continental Eurasia Driven by Glacial Retreat and Greenhouse Forcing. Nature Geoscience, 10, 430-435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[94] Ren, G.Y., Jiang, D.B. and Yan, Q. (2021) Characteristics, Drivers, and Feedbacks of Paleoclimatic Evolution and Their Implications for Modern Climate Change Research. Quaternary Sciences, 41, 824-841.