预防儿童术后恶心呕吐的研究进展
Research Progress on the Prevention of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting in Children
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2025.152370, PDF, HTML, XML,   
作者: 甘政伟, 涂生芬:重庆医科大学附属儿童医院麻醉科,国家儿童健康与疾病临床医学研究中心,儿童发育疾病研究教育部重点实验室,儿童代谢与炎症性疾病重庆市重点实验室,重庆
关键词: 术后恶心呕吐儿童手术预防Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting Child Surgery Prophylaxis
摘要: 迄今为止,术后恶心呕吐(postoperative nausea and vomiting, PONV)仍然是围术期间严重的并发症之一,它增加了患者手术切口破裂,出血的风险并可能导致吸入性肺炎,电解质紊乱,脱水等不良事件的发生,增加了患者的住院时间以及费用,在一定程度上影响了患者术后的生活品质。预防术后恶心呕吐仍然是临床上热议的话题之一,特别是预防儿童术后恶心呕吐更应该得到大众的关注。这篇文章综述了最近几十年对于预防儿童PONV的研究进展的总结。
Abstract: To date, postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is still one of the serious complications during perioperative surgery, which increases the risk of surgical incision rupture and bleeding and may lead to aspiration pneumonia, electrolyte imbalance, dehydration and other adverse events, increases the length of hospital stay and costs, and affects the quality of life of patients after surgery to a certain extent. The prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting is still one of the hot topics in clinical practice, especially the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting in children should receive more public attention. This article summarizes recent advances in research on the prevention of PONV in children.
文章引用:甘政伟, 涂生芬. 预防儿童术后恶心呕吐的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2025, 15(2): 481-489. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2025.152370

1. 引言

恶心呕吐是常见的术后并发症之一,有效防治PONV是提高患者术后舒适度的重要方法之一。在儿童患者中,发生PONV的危险因素以及预防PONV的方法与成人患者有明显的差异,本文主要阐述预防儿童PONV的方法,为减少儿童PONV提供依据。

2. 危险因素

引起儿童PONV的危险因素包括:年龄 > 3岁,手术时长 > 30分钟,晕动史或PONV史,斜视手术,扁桃体切除术,疝修补术,中耳成形术,剖腹手术,青春期后女性,吸入性麻醉,阿片类药物等等。

2.1. 自身因素

1) 年龄 > 3岁:研究指出[1] 14周岁以内的孩子,从3岁左右开始,随年龄的增长,发生PONV的风险每年可增加0.2%~0.8%。

2) 青春期后的女性:研究表明[2],女性的月经周期与PONV的发生有关。

3) 个人或家族PONV史[2]也是PONV的危险因素之一。

2.2. 药物因素

1) 吸入性麻醉:经证实,吸入性麻醉药物有明显的催吐作用。避免使用吸入性麻醉药能降低19%的PONV发生率[3]

2) 一氧化亚氮,一氧化亚氮会增加PONV的发生率,避免一氧化二氮的使用能够降低PONV的发生率[4]

3) 阿片类药物,阿片类药物能够刺激肠系膜上的μ受体,引起胃排空延迟和胃胀,从而激活内脏机械感受器和化学感受器,引起恶心呕吐[5]

2.3. 手术因素

1) 手术时长 > 30分钟:对于儿童手术而言,手术的时长是一项PONV的独立危险因素[2],有研究数据表明,手术时长每增加30分钟,PONV的风险将会增加59% [6]

2) 斜视手术,斜视手术是儿童常见的手术之一,PONV也是这类手术最头疼的并发症之一。据统计,如果不加以预防,斜视手术PONV的发生率高达37%~90% [7] [8]

3) 扁桃体切除术,PONV是儿童扁桃体切除术后最常见的并发症之一,在没有预防的前提下,发生PONV的概率超过70% [9]

4) 其他手术类型,睾丸修复术,疝修补术,中耳手术,剖腹手术等都是儿童PONV的危险因素[10] [11]

3. 儿童PONV的风险评估与分层

3.1. 风险评估

在手术之前,我们需要评估患儿PONV的危险程度,以便作出相应的预防措施。根据Apfel等人的研究[12],做出了一个用于成年人的简化的PONV的风险评分,称为Apfel简化风险评分,里面包括了女性,不吸烟,晕动史或PONV史,术后阿片药物的使用四个独立危险因素,并指出0,1,2,3,4个危险因素时对应的10%,21%,39%,61%,79%的PONV发生率。但是成人的风险评分在有些方面并不适用于儿童(如吸烟状况),所以Eberhart等人研究出了一个预测儿童术后呕吐的简化风险评分,称为Eberhart评分,里面包括了四个独立的危险因素:手术时长 ≥ 30分钟,年龄 ≥ 3岁,斜视手术,患儿PONV史或家族PONV史。同样0,1,2,3,4个危险因素对应的PONV的发生率为9%,10%,30%,55%,70% [2]

3.2. 风险分层

根据PONV的共识指南,为了更加精确地预防与管理PONV,专家根据患者潜在的危险因素的数量将患者发生术后恶心呕吐的危险程度分为了低风险,中风险,高风险三个层次。没有危险因素为低风险,1~2个危险因素为中风险,≥ 3个危险因素为高风险。而儿童PONV的危险因素就包括上述的年龄 > 3岁,手术时长 > 30分钟,个人有晕动史或者PONV史,斜视手术,扁桃体切除术,疝修补术,中耳成形术,剖腹手术,青春期后女性,吸入性麻醉,阿片类药物等等危险因素[13]

4. 引起PONV的机制

恶心和呕吐是各种刺激引起的大脑和肠道相互作用介导而产生的,是由肠道神经系统,中枢神经系统(CNS),和自主神经系统之间的持续相互作用所引起[14]

4.1. 引起恶心呕吐的机制

a) 胃肠道中的毒素或者药物等刺激消化道释放催吐神经递质作用于相应受体间接刺激迷走神经复合体中的脑干催吐核;b) 有害物质或者某些药物直接刺激脑干背迷走神经复合催吐核;c) 胃肠道或者其他内脏器官发生病理性改变(胃炎、心肌梗塞等)直接或间接激活上述途径;d) 中枢神经系统内的情绪和认知刺激,包括大脑皮层或者边缘系统;e) 晕动病时前庭核和小脑紊乱[15]

4.2. 介导呕吐的部位

4.2.1. 中枢部位

包括脑干背迷走神经复合体,它由后区、孤立束核、迷走神经背运动核组成。不同的刺激传入至脑干背迷走神经复合体,整合信号协调催吐反射。而其中第四脑室底部的后区以及孤立束核缺乏血脑屏障,能够更快地接受刺激,引起恶心呕吐,所以是外周催吐刺激的主要中枢位点[16]

4.2.2. 外周部位

包括肠嗜铬细胞、胃肠道壁的肠道神经系统、迷走神经、内脏神经。这些位点就负责接受胃肠道及脏器的催吐信号并传递到脑干的背迷走神经复合体催吐核,产生恶心呕吐的感觉[17]

4.3. 接受催吐神经递质的受体

4.3.1. 5-HT受体

5-HT受体有很多不同的亚型,现在的研究表明5-HT3受体是引起催吐作用的主要受体[18]。5-HT3受体激活之后引起5-HT神经元快速去极化,导致细胞内的钙离子增加,导致催吐神经递质和/肽释放的浓度增加[19]

4.3.2. 神经激肽NK1受体

神经激肽NK1受体同时在中枢和外周催吐位点上表达,包括脑干迷走神经复合体催吐核,胃肠道的迷走神经传入细胞,肠神经元和肠嗜铬细胞[20]

4.3.3. 多巴胺D2/3受体

研究表明多巴胺D2/D3受体激动剂可以直接作用于外周的肠道催吐位点(嗜铬细胞,迷走神经等等)和中枢的背迷走神经复合体产生呕吐行为[21]

4.3.4. 乙酰胆碱受体

乙酰胆碱是一种催吐神经递质,经证实,毒蕈碱样M1受体能够诱发呕吐,阻断非选择性的毒蕈碱受体或者阻断M1受体都能预防恶心呕吐[22]

4.3.5. 组胺H1受体

组胺具有外周催吐作用,能够刺激迷走神经传入和传递到脑干催吐核引起呕吐[23]

4.3.6. 阿片受体

阿片受体包括μδκ,研究表明在阿片受体中μ受体的激活对恶心呕吐的影响最为重要[24]。阿片受体存在于后区,前庭器官和胃肠道区域,阿片类药物引起的恶心呕吐也与受体激活存在关系[25]。阿片类药物引起恶心呕吐的机制就包括:a) 直接刺激阿片类μ受体(可能还有δ受体),随后主要通过多巴胺D2受体以及后区的5-HT3受体向孤立束细胞核发出信号。b) 刺激前庭器官,通过组胺H1和胆碱能系统对孤立束核的感觉输入[25]。c) 抑制肠道蠕动,增加肠道扩张和排空的时间,刺激内脏机械和化学感受器,将呕吐信号传入孤立束核[17]

5. 预防儿童PONV

由于儿童年龄小,表达能力有限,不能清楚地描述出恶心这一生理现象,所有临床上更多的研究主要是针对术后呕吐,但是鉴于儿童本身是PONV的高发生率(33%~82%)人群[2],预防儿童术后恶心也应该得到临床重视。预防PONV的方式包括药物与非药物疗法。

5.1. 药物

5.1.1. 5-HT受体拮抗剂

常见的5-HT3受体拮抗剂有昂丹司琼、格拉司琼、多拉司琼、托烷司琼、帕洛诺司琼等等。在预防儿童PONV的研究中发现,5-HT受体拮抗剂和地塞米松的联合使用能够使PONV相对风险降低80% [26]。昂丹司琼和多拉司琼抗恶心呕吐的效果相当[27],单独使用昂丹司琼与多拉司琼联合地塞米松相比抗恶心呕吐的效果也相当[28]。帕洛诺司琼作为新一代的5-HT3受体拮抗剂,它与昂丹司琼、格拉司琼相比,它的半衰期更长,预防早期(24 h)内的PONV也更加有效[29]。在临床使用中也证实了它的有效性[30]

5.1.2. NK1受体拮抗剂

当位于胃肠道和后区、孤立束核的NK1受体被P物质激活之后,就会产生呕吐反射,NK1受体拮抗剂能阻止P物质与NK1受体的结合从而避免术后呕吐的发生[20]。临床常用的NK1受体拮抗剂有阿瑞匹坦、福沙匹坦、罗拉匹坦等。NK1受体即拮抗剂具有作用持续时间长、抗呕吐作用好、副作用良好的特点[31]。针对儿童患者的研究发现,阿瑞匹坦与昂丹司琼24h内完全缓解率(无呕吐和需要抢救性止吐药)相当,但是阿瑞匹坦在预防24 h或48 h内术后呕吐方面比昂丹司琼更好[32]

5.1.3. 多巴胺D2/3受体拮抗剂

多巴胺D2/3受体拮抗剂通过拮抗外周和中枢上的多巴胺受体抑制呕吐反射。临床常用的多巴胺受体拮抗剂包括:氟派利多、甲氧氯普胺,氨磺必利等。研究表明,氟派利多与昂丹司琼相比,在加中等剂量的地塞米松的前提下,昂丹司琼对预防儿童的PONV的效果更好[33]。并且氟派利多被证实有延长QTc的副作用导致氟派利多的使用率下降[34]。昂丹司琼和氟派利多在减少呕吐方面比甲氧氯普胺更有效,而昂丹司琼在预防儿童呕吐方面比氟派利多更有效[35]。最后,5mgiv氨磺必利可有效降低中/高风险成人手术患者的PONV [36],而且氨磺必利和安慰剂相比安全性没有显着差异,特别是QTc延长方面[37]。氨磺必利作为一种新型的多巴胺受体拮抗剂,对于降低儿童PONV的价值也值得深思与挖掘。

5.1.4. M胆碱能受体拮抗剂

近年来很少有专门研究胆碱能受体拮抗剂对术后恶心呕吐的影响。经研究表明,胆碱能受体拮抗剂如阿托品、东莨菪碱等药物确实能降低术后24 h恶心呕吐的发生率,但是作用轻微,使用之后依旧有很高的恶心呕吐发生率[38],所以临床很少单独将此药物作为预防或者治疗术后恶心呕吐的首选药物。经证实,在儿童手术当中,术后48 h内,东莨菪碱对于预防儿童PONV有作用,但也增加了口干的发生率[39]。在小儿扁桃体手术中,使用阿托品除了能够预防心动过缓与口腔分泌物过多以外,还能降低术后恶心呕吐的风险[40]。也有研究指出,在小儿斜视手术中,阿托品能预防眼心反射,但不能降低术后呕吐的风险[41]

5.1.5. 抗组胺类药物

抗组胺药主要抑制的是H1受体,不管是预防成人还是儿童的术后恶心呕吐,抗组胺药物都发挥着重要的作用。抗组胺药茶苯海明、异丙嗪等对于儿童中耳道手术、斜视手术等都能显著地预防PONV [42]-[44]。赛克利嗪在成人中能够预防PONV [45],但是在儿童手术中赛克利嗪的预防作用却并不明显,而且还会引起注射疼痛[46]。但现在的研究指出,抗组胺药与其他类型的抗呕吐药物联合使用会比单种药物的效果更加的显著[43]。当前许多的关于抗组胺药物与其他药物联合使用预防术后恶心呕吐的成人临床试验对于儿童来说同样的具有指导意义[47]

5.1.6. 阿片受体拮抗剂

阿片类药物作为临床上最常用的镇痛药物之一,临床上对其副作用的研究非常广泛,其中PONV就是其中比较头疼的问题。纳洛酮作为常见的阿片类受体拮抗剂,它能够结合阿片受体,减少阿片类药物引起的恶心呕吐。有研究人员将纳洛酮与舒芬太尼共同用于术后硬膜外镇痛,发现硬膜外小剂量纳洛酮不仅能够降低PONV的发生率还能增加镇痛效果[48]。但是在最近的一份研究报告[49]中指出,低剂量的纳洛酮并不能预防PONV,当然这也许和纳洛酮的剂量或者实验方法等因素有关。最后,同样也缺少相关的研究指出纳洛酮对于预防儿童PONV的作用。

5.1.7. 地塞米松

地塞米松作为一种作用时间长,价格低廉的糖皮质激素,它降低PONV的效果也是十分的显著。现在很多的研究都证明了地塞米松对于降低PONV的有效性[50],它对于预防儿童恶心呕吐也有很好的效果。引起儿童PONV的高危因素斜视手术,扁桃体手术等,地塞米松都具有很显著的预防作用。现在更加倾向将地塞米松与其他药物进行联合用药,比如地塞米松与昂丹司琼联合使用的效果比单独使用地塞米松的效果更好[33]。还有地塞米松 + 术中补液过度水合同样也比单独使用的效果更好[51]

5.2. 非药物治疗

5.2.1.芳香疗法

芳香疗法作为一种预防PONV的辅助方法,在现有的研究中发现,它的治疗效果非常不稳定,甚至在相似的人群中,它治疗的成功率也有不同,芳香疗法与安慰剂的作用差别并不明显。在最近的一篇研究芳香疗法的综述中提到[52],对于治疗结束时的恶心严重程度,芳香疗法与安慰剂具有相似的疗效,同样,这样的结论也受到低质量证据的影响,也有研究指出接受芳香疗法的受试者可能需要较少的止吐药,但也缺乏证据,所以也需要更多的研究者去探讨这样的问题。

5.2.2. 穴位疗法

穴位疗法是当前最常见的预防PONV的非药物疗法,它的有效性现在也被完全证实。穴位疗法研究最多的是桡腕屈肌和长掌肌腱之间,位于掌屈近段的三个手指宽度的P6穴位(内关穴)。根据研究表明[53],不管是按压、针灸刺激、电刺激、针灸注射P6穴位都能够降低PONV的发生率,有研究通过在P6穴位注射50%葡萄糖来刺激穴位来预防PONV并且与氟派利多来进行比较,发现刺激穴位比氟派利多更能降低PONV的发生率,但是相关的机制尚不完全清楚。至于穴位疗法在儿童患者中的应用同样被证实有效,比如索姆里等人就证实在儿童牙科手术中,针灸就是一种有效的非药物代替止吐治疗[54]。除了中国传统的P6穴位以外,也有研究表明韩国手部穴位K-K9、K-D2的按摩也能降低PONV的发生率。有大量证据表明,在传统中医穴位P6应用针灸可有效预防PONV,副作用很小。此外,与止吐药相比,效果更佳,有相关的研究证明了K-K9穴位的按摩能够减少儿童斜视手术的PONV [55]

6. 结语

术后恶心呕吐是儿童手术最常见的术后并发症之一,它严重影响了患儿在术后的生活品质。降低PONV的发生率,改善患儿术后生活质量是我们需要去重视解决的问题。在最近几十年的研究过程中,从证明最开始的抗吐药物的有效性,到之后的抗吐药物越来越多,并不断进行药物之间的比较,分析出最适合、最有效的抗吐药物,到最后的联合用药,两种甚至三种不同类型止吐药的联合使用成为了新的趋势,随着研究的不断深入,我们对于预防PONV也有了越来越多的思路,现在我们预防PONV的方法也越来越成熟,我们也一直在为了提升患者的术后舒适度而努力。我相信在未来一定会有更加优化的方案,提高患者的生活质量。

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