病毒的性传播及防控原则研究进展
Research Progress on Sexual Transmission of Viruses and Precautionary Principles
DOI: 10.12677/AMB.2020.93015, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 437  浏览: 1,377  国家自然科学基金支持
作者: 钱忠瑶, 魏大巧*, 黄 芬*:昆明理工大学,医学院,云南 昆明;禹文海:中国医学科学院医学生物学研究所,云南 昆明
关键词: 病毒性传播防控原则Virus Sexual Transmission Precautionary Principle
摘要: 病毒的性传播趋势日益严峻,严重危害人类身心健康。病毒可通过异性或同性之间的阴道性交、肛交和口交等方式进行传播,精液、阴道分泌物为性传播病毒的重要媒介。不同人群、不同性行为之间传播效率存在差异,且男男性行为者(MSM)为性传播病毒的易感人群。预防病毒的性传播,接种疫苗、使用避孕套、进行包皮环切手术方式是有效措施,暴露前预防(PrEP),暴露后预防(PEP)、抗逆转录病毒治疗(ART)等也被证明可有效防控病毒的性传播。目前关于病毒的性传播途径及防控原则缺乏系统的论述,本文就病毒的性传播途径和有效防控原则进行归纳总结。
Abstract: The trend of sexual transmission of viruses is increasingly serious, virus infection harms to human physical and mental health. Viruses can be transmitted by heterosexual or homosexual sexual contact, such as vaginal sex, anal sex and oral sex, semen and vaginal secretions are important carriers of sexually transmitted viruses. The transmission efficiency varies among different populations and sexual behaviors, and men who have sex with men (MSM) are susceptible people. Vaccination, condom use and circumcision are effective measures to prevent sexual transmission of the virus. It was shown that Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and antiretroviral therapy (ART) were effective in preventing sexual transmission of the virus. At present, there is no systematic discussion on sexual transmission of virus and the precautionary principles. This paper summarizes the sexual transmission of virus and the precautionary principles.
文章引用:钱忠瑶, 禹文海, 魏大巧, 黄芬. 病毒的性传播及防控原则研究进展[J]. 微生物前沿, 2020, 9(3): 95-102. https://doi.org/10.12677/AMB.2020.93015

1. 引言

2019年WHO报道 [1],全世界每天100多万人获得性传播感染(sexually transmitted infections, STIs),30多种细菌、病毒和寄生虫可通过性接触方式传播。性接触主要指异性或同性之间的阴道性交、肛交和口交行为。通过性接触、类似性行为和间接接触传播的一类疾病称为性传播疾病(sexually transmitted diseases, STDs)。性传播病原体中有八种流行率最高,四种(滴虫、衣原体、淋病和梅毒)可治愈,其它四种病毒性感染(HIV、HPV、HSV和HBV)往往难以治愈 [1]。随着研究的深入,越来越多病毒的性传播案例被报道,如ZIKV、DENV、EBOV。为预防病毒的性传播,越来越多的防控措施被证明可有效防控病毒传播。本文就HIV、HPV、HSV、ZIKV、HBV等病毒的性传播和防控原则进行归纳论述。

2. 人类免疫缺陷病毒I型(Human immunodeficiency virus 1, HIV-1)

HIV是一种逆转录RNA病毒,属逆转录病毒。HIV感染攻击机体的CD4 T淋巴细胞,破坏机体免疫平衡,使机体极易感染外界的各种病原体,从而诱发获得性免疫缺陷综合征(acquired immune deficiency syndrome, AIDS),俗称艾滋病。调查发现,中国新增的大学生HIV感染数以每年30%~50%的速度激增 [2]。尽管单次无保护性行为感染HIV概率较低(阴道性交男女感染率为0.04%和0.08%,肛交插入方和接受方感染率为0.11%和1.33%,口交感染率几乎为零 [3]),但性传播占中国HIV感染大多数(异性69.1%,同性23.0%,合计92.1% [4])。血液、精液和阴道分泌物都是HIV传播的重要载体。每毫升血浆中的病毒载量是判断HIV性传播风险的重要指标。异性伴侣中血清HIV-1 RNA每增加log10 copies/ml,性传播风险增加2.45倍 [5];血浆HIV-1 RNA降低0.7log10 copies/ml,传播风险减少50% [6]。生殖器中病毒载量也可作为HIV-1性传播的评断标准。女性宫颈内HIV-1 RNA每增加log10 copies/swab,男性感染风险增加2.20倍;男性精液中HIV-1 RNA每增加log10 copies/ml,女性感染风险增加1.79倍 [7]。怀孕 [8]、注射激素避孕 [9] 等都可能增加HIV性传播风险。

多种措施结合有利于防控HIV传播。避孕套的使用能让异性恋男女HIV感染率降低80% [10],MSM中的接受方和插入方分别降低72%和63% [11]。一项对19至49岁男性的调查发现,进行包皮环切手术使男性HIV感染率降低51% [12]。暴露前预防(pre-exposure prophylaxis, PrEP)是也一种有效措施。事前服用抗病毒药物恩曲他滨和替诺福韦酯(FTC/TDF)可使HIV感染风险在异性恋男女中减少91% [13],在高感染风险的MSM和跨性别女性中减少44% [14]。暴露后预防(post-exposure prophylaxis, PEP),即在暴露于HIV感染风险后,72小时内服用抗病毒药物(疗程28天)也能有效预防HIV感染。对于HIV/AIDS患者,通过抗逆转录病毒治疗(antiretroviral therapy, ART)降低自身病毒载量有助于防控HIV传播。886对单方HIV阳性的夫妇,阳性者接受ART,HIV-1性传播风险显著下降(HR 0.04,95% Cl 0.01~0.27) [15]。782对单方HIV阳性的MSM,阳性者接受了ART,在不使用避孕套的情况下HIV也不会传播 [16]。虽经过多年的努力,但有效的HIV疫苗尚未研发成功。

3. 人类乳头瘤病毒(Human papillomavirus, HPV)

HPV为无包膜的双链环状DNA病毒,目前发现约200多种HPV基因型,分为低危型HPV (LR-HPV)和高危型HPV (HR-HPV)。人类是HPV的唯一自然宿主,HPV感染人体生殖系统后,低危型HPV6和HPV11可诱导生殖器湿疣,而高危型HPV16和HPV18则可导致宫颈癌、前列腺癌、肛门癌等。HPV全球感染超过2.9亿女性,每年导致57万女性和6万男性的相关癌症,性传播是主要途径 [1] [17]。一项对490名HIV阳性MSM调查发现,MSM肛门处HR-HPV感染率高达70%,且吸烟者与不吸烟者HPV感染存在差异(OR 1.8,95% Cl 1.2~2.7) [18]。2020年《NEJM》报告,美国HPV感染导致的口咽癌比例由1980年代的16.3%上升到2000年代的72.7%以上,其感染的主要方式是口交 [19]。间接接触也能传播HPV,如与HPV感染者共用毛巾、内衣。口服避孕药5~9年增加HPV女性患者宫颈癌患病风险(OR 2.82, 95% Cl 1.46~5.42),口服10年以上宫颈癌患病风险进一步增加(OR 4.03, 95% Cl 2.09~8.02) [20]。

HPV疫苗可分为预防性疫苗和治疗性疫苗两类。目前国内外主要的预防性HPV疫苗有3种:二价疫苗(Cervarix 2),针对HPV16、HPV18;四价疫苗(Gardasil 4),针对HPV6、HPV11、HPV 16、HPV 18;九价疫苗(Gardasil 9),针对HPV6、HPV11、HPV16、HPV 18、HPV 31、HPV 33、HPV 4、5、HPV 52、HPV 58。二价疫苗可使英国女性宫颈上皮内瘤变(CIN)一级、二级和三级发病率分别降低79%、88%和89% [21];四价疫苗能有效预防20~45岁中国大陆女性HPV持续感染和生殖器癌前病变 [22]。因此,建议全球推广疫苗接种。治疗性疫苗现处于研究阶段,主要针对病毒的E6和E7蛋白,通过细胞的特异性免疫清除病毒。持续使用避孕套显著降低女性生殖器HPV感染风险(HR0.3, 95% CI 0.1~0.6 [23]),降低性活跃男性的HPV感染风险(HR 0.54, 95% CI 0.31~0.95 [24])。此外,进行包皮环切也可有效预防男性HPV感染(HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.46~0.90 [25])。

4. 单纯疱疹病毒(Herpes simplex virus, HSV)

HSV是具有包膜的双链DNA病毒,属疱疹病毒科,可分为两种血清型:HSV-1和HSV-2。全球估计有5亿多人感染生殖器疱疹病毒 [1]。HSV-1通常引起口、唇和眼等部位的疱疹,但近年HSV-1引起的生殖器疱疹不断增多。一项对亚洲HSV-1流行性的分析发现,HSV-1在生殖器溃疡中的检出率为5.6%,在生殖器疱疹中的检出率为18.8% [26]。从1992到2006,悉尼HSV-1感染导致的肛门和生殖器疱疹比例从29%上升到42%,MSM更是由17%上升到76%,且MSM肛门疱疹比例高于生殖器疱疹 [27]。Bernstein [28] 甚至发现,HSV-1比HSV-2更为常见的感染美国和意大利年轻女性生殖器和口腔粘膜(2.5/100人年 > 1.1/100人年)。此外,许多证据表明HSV-1是阿尔茨海默病的重要诱因。

HSV-2主要通过性接触传播,原发感染多发于性交后,引起男女生殖器疱疹。一般人群在HSV-2感染的情况下,HIV的感染率提高近3倍(RR 2.7, 95% CI 2.2~3.4);高危人群的感染率也会提高近2倍(RR 1.7, 95% CI 1.4~2.1) [29]。研究发现,患生殖器疱疹的女性患宫颈癌风险显著升高,宫颈癌患者体内HSV-2抗体阳性率较高。

使用避孕套可让异性恋HSV-2男传女风险降低96%,女传男风险降低65% [30]。进行包皮环切也可有效预防男性HSV-2感染(HR 0.72,95% CI 0.56~0.92 [25])。此外,阿昔洛韦(acyclovir, ACV)及其类似物对生殖器疱疹具有较好的疗效。有效的生殖器疱疹病毒疫苗尚未研制成功,疫苗接种后血液中产生的高浓度抗体不能进入到最需保护的阴道腔可能是疫苗失败原因 [31]。

5. 寨卡病毒(Zika virus, ZIKV)

ZIKV是一种单股正链RNA病毒,属于黄病毒科黄病毒属。感染者往往伴有头痛、发热、关节痛等症状,且研究表明ZIKV是导致婴儿小头畸形病、吉兰巴雷综合征等重症的关键因素。ZIKV主要通过蚊虫传播,其中埃及伊蚊被认为是主要的传播媒介;性接触也可导致ZIKV传播,且以男性传染女性最为常见(92.5% [32])。ZIKV RNA在精液中可存在长达6个月,感染ZIKV两周后精液中的病毒载量可达到血液和尿液104倍 [33]。一项对150名ZIKV感染者的调查发现,很少在患者的阴道分泌物中检测到ZIKV RNA,而精液(中位数34天、第95百分位数81天)中可长时间检测到ZIKVRNA [34]。干扰素(IFN)信号通路在限制ZIKV性传播中发挥重要作用,感染ZIKV的雄性小鼠生殖细胞中干扰素刺激基因(ISG)Ifi44l被抑制,为ZIKV复制和其在精液中存在提供了条件 [35]。在缺乏IFN-α/β信号通路的小鼠中,睾丸部位具有较高的病毒载量 [36]。

为避免ZIKV性传播,建议暴露感染风险的男女应分别在6和2个月内采取安全性行为或禁欲 [37]。目前多种ZIKV疫苗已进行临床前或临床研究,如核酸疫苗、减毒疫苗和灭活疫苗。

6. 肝炎病毒(Hepatitis virus)

甲型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis A virus, HAV)是一种无包膜RNA球形病毒,其感染可引起肝功能异常、肝肿大、黄疸等症状,通常表现为急性肝炎,多为无症状感染者。HAV主要经粪–口途径传播,性接触可能导致HAV在MSM中的传播,但异性恋者尚未证实。欧洲出现过MSM爆发感染HAV,这可能与MSM频繁的肛交、口交有关 [38] [39]。目前,我国主要使用甲肝灭活疫苗和减毒活疫苗两种,均具有极高的血清阳转率。

乙型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis B virus, HBV)是一种环状DNA双链病毒,其感染会引起食欲不振、黄疸、肝脾大等症状,严重者会导致肝硬化、肝癌。HBV主要通过血液、性接触和母婴传播。精液和阴道分泌物中均可检测到HBV,是性传播的重要媒介。欧盟 [40] 将MSM认为是HBV的高危感染人群,且认为HBV与HCV、HIV之间存在复杂的相互作用。目前,接种乙型肝炎疫苗是预防HBV感染最有效的措施。疫苗接种随着新生儿年龄增长,免疫应答率降低,建议尽早接种。

丙型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis C virus, HCV)为单股正链RNA球状病毒,可导致食欲不佳、黄疸、甚至肝硬化、肝癌等症状。血液传播和静脉注射毒品为HCV传播的主要方式,HCV是否会通过性行为进行传播,尚存争议。性接触虽可导致HCV在MSM传播感染,但在异性夫妇中传播效率极低。生殖器分泌物中HCV的病毒滴度较低,所以HCV性行为传播效率远远低于其它经血液传播病毒,如HIV、HBV [41]。目前尚无有效疫苗可预防丙型肝炎,建议HCV感染者性交时使用避孕套,避免血液暴露。

7. 其它病毒

人巨细胞病毒(HCMV)人群中阳性率较高,通常呈潜伏感染,可通过唾液、尿液、精液等进行传播。对于免疫低下者有较大影响,如引起HIV/AIDS患者多器官损伤。EB病毒(EBV)是引起单核细胞增多症的主要病因,口腔途径是EBV传播的主要途径。越来越多的证据显示EBV也可通过性传播,且EBV与宫颈癌的发生存在关联 [42]。传染性软疣病毒(MCV)是一种DNA病毒,可通过皮肤接触、性接触传播,感染可引发生殖器部位传染性软疣。此外,登革热病毒(DENV) [43]、埃博拉病毒(EBOV) [44] 都报道过性传播感染案例。

8. 结语

性传播是病毒感染的重要途径,HIV、HPV和HSV等病毒可通过性接触传播引起相关病症,如免疫缺陷综合症、生殖器疱疹和尖锐湿疣。MSM和性活跃人群更易感染病毒,这与其性行为方式、性伴侣数等因素有关。与阴道性行为相比,肛交易造成肛肠粘膜的破损,引起病原体入侵造成感染。口交性行为虽然造成HIV感染的概率几乎为零,但可造成HPV感染口腔 [3] [19]。精液与阴道分泌物中的病毒载量存在差异,可能是男女病毒性传播存在差异的原因 [34]。本文对多种病毒的传播方式、性传播效率和危害进行整理(表1)。面对严峻的性传播病毒流行趋势,积极的防控措施是必不可少的。接种相关疫苗、使用避孕套、男性进行包皮环切手术是有效的预防方式。此外,暴露前预防(PrEP),暴露后预防(PEP)和抗逆转录病毒治疗(ART)对于HIV的性传播有较好的防控效果。有效合理的预防方式仍在不断探究,本文对常见的几种性传播病毒的有效防控原则进行整理(表2),为更好的了解相关性传播病毒的危害和预防病毒性传播奠定基础。

Table 1. The transmission routes and damages of viruses

表1. 病毒的传播途径及危害

Table 2. Precautionary principles of viral transmission

表2. 病毒性传播的防控原则

基金项目

国家自然科学基金项目(81660338、81960370);云南省科技厅项目(2017FA036、2018FB132);协和青年科研基金项目(3332019008)。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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