胰十二指肠切除术后早期并发症及其危险因素研究进展
Review on the Risk Factors for Early Postoperative Complications Following Pancreaticoduodenectomy
DOI: 10.12677/ACM.2024.142541, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 38  浏览: 88 
作者: 祖丽胡马尔·麦麦提艾力, 何铁英*:新疆医科大学第一附属医院消化血管外科中心胰腺外科,新疆 乌鲁木齐
关键词: 胰十二指肠切除术并发症胰瘘胃排空延迟综述Pancreaticoduodenectomy Complications Pancreatic Fistula Delayed Gastric Emptying Review
摘要: 随着医疗水平与手术技术的飞速发展,有效预防并处理胰十二指肠切除术后早期并发症已成为提高该术式安全性的关键。然而,胰十二指肠切除术后早期各种并发症仍困扰着外科医生,损害着患者的利益。故胰十二指肠切除术后早期并发症的发生仍应以预防为主,充分认识到早期并发症的危险因素,改善术前患者一般状态、术中操作及术后的管理,尽量防止术后并发症的发生并将其代价降到最低。本文总结近期国内外相关文献,重点讲述胰十二指肠切除术后早期并发症及其危险因素,旨在为临床医生提供有关预防及预测胰十二指肠切除术后早期并发症的最新进展。
Abstract: With the rapid development of medical science and surgical techniques, prevention and manage-ment of early complications after pancreaticoduodenectomy has become the key to improve the safety of this operation. However, the early complications of pancreaticoduodenectomy remain the biggest problem for surgeons. Therefore, the prevention of early complications after pancreaticoduodenectomy should be the priority; the risk factors of early postoperative complica-tions should be fully recognized; the general status of the patients before operation, the operation procedure and the management after operation should be improved, to prevent the occurrence of postoperative complications and to minimize the cost. Based on the recent literature, this article focuses on the early complications post pancreaticoduodenectomy and their risk factors. The pur-pose of this article is to provide surgeons with the latest progress in the prevention and prediction of early complications after pancreaticoduodenectomy.
文章引用:祖丽胡马尔·麦麦提艾力, 何铁英. 胰十二指肠切除术后早期并发症及其危险因素研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2024, 14(2): 3890-3898. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2024.142541

1. 引言

第一例胰十二指肠切除术(pancreaticoduodenectomy, PD)于1898年由意大利外科医生Alessandro Codivilla实施。1935年,美国外科医生Allen Whipple对PD进行了改进和推广,PD由彼时的二期手术(第一阶段行胆囊空肠吻合术及胃空肠吻合术,大约4周后,行第二阶段手术切除十二指肠、胰头及胆总管)改良成为一期手术。但由于围手术期死亡率接近25%,这种手术很少进行,Whipple职业生涯中也仅进行了37例PD [1] 。20世纪80年代以来,随着手术技术的进步,PD越来越受欢迎,成为胰头、壶腹部、十二指肠及胆总管远端肿瘤的标准术式。随着外科技术的进步及外科医生经验的增加,PD术后并发症发生率和围手术期死亡率明显下降,在大容量中心围手术期死亡率约为1%,但仍有高达50%的并发症发生率 [2] 。

手术后胰瘘、胃排空延迟、术后出血、胆漏及腹腔感染是PD术后早期常见的并发症。这些并发症会导致患者生活质量下降,住院时间延长,住院费用增加,甚至造成患者围手术期死亡。因此,了解PD术后早期并发症的危险因素是非常重要的,以预防、预测并发症的发生并将其代价降到最低。本综述结合近期国内外文献,重点讲述PD术后早期并发症及其危险因素,旨在为临床医生提供有关预防及预测PD术后早期并发症的最新进展。

2. 胰瘘

手术后胰瘘(postoperative pancreatic fistula, POPF)是PD术后最常见也是最可怕的并发症。尽管在过去的十年里,手术技术上有了很大的进步和改进,但在大容量中心,这种并发症的发生率仍然在3%~45%之间 [3] 。2017年由国际胰腺外科研究组裁定的POPF诊断标准为:(1) 术后第三天及以后任意一天任意量的引流液中淀粉酶浓度高于血清淀粉酶浓度正常上限3倍以上;(2) 有胰瘘相关临床决策的改变(如住院时间或ICU入住时间延长,生长抑素及其类似药物、肠内、肠外营养及血制品的使用等) [4] 。在国际胰腺外科研究组的标准化定义中,单纯的A级胰瘘即生化瘘不再被视为POPF,并通过最多3周的常规引流来治疗 [5] 。如处理不当,POPF可能促进腹腔感染、术后出血及其他感染性并发症,是PD术后患者死亡的重要原因,因此,POPF的预防和管理备受关注。

自从国际胰腺外科研究组明确及标准化POPF的定义以来,学者对POPF的风险因素进行了系统的研究。许多文章证实,POPF的风险因素有患者自身、术中及术后因素,包括年龄、性别、吸烟史、体重指数(BMI)、伴随疾病、新辅助治疗、吻合技术、术中出血量、手术时间、胰腺质地、胰管直径、胰管支架的使用、常规引流管的放置及预防性生长抑素及其类似药物的使用等 [6] 。

与患者自身基本特征相关的几个风险因素包括高龄、男性、吸烟史、合并基础疾病及肥胖 [7] [8] [9] [10] 。值得注意的是,这些因素通常也与总体并发症发生率相关,因此不是POPF所特有的风险因素。一项分析了12,930例胰腺切除术患者的荟萃分析发现80岁或更老的患者术后死亡率和并发症的发生率明显高于青年患者,且住院时间更长 [11] 。心肺功能差的患者发生POPF的风险增加 [12] ,而中老年人随着年龄的增长,心肺功能也会逐渐下降,这可能解释了一些与年龄相关的风险。除此之外,男性患者PD后发生POPF的风险比女性患者高 [13] [14] 。据报道,肥胖也是POPF的独立危险因素,中国一项纳入了227例PD患者的回顾性研究表明高BMI (≥25 Kg/m2)是POPF的独立危险因素,高BMI组的POPF发生率高达53.3% [15] 。有吸烟史的患者PD后POPF的发生率更高 [14] [16] [17] ,但文献中暂无戒烟对PD早期结局影响的数据。

新辅助治疗对POPF的影响较为特别。美国一项纳入了3114名患者的回顾性研究发现,新辅助化疗是POPF的保护性因素,而新辅助放疗是POPF的危险因素 [18] 。新辅助化疗已被证明会增加胰腺纤维化 [19] ,因此,新辅助化疗的保护作用很可能是由于胰腺结构的改变,导致胰腺质地更硬,更不容易形成POPF。但由于很少单独使用新辅助放疗,因此很少有研究评估放疗对胰腺质地的影响。

PD中的胰管吻合可以通过不同的方式进行,包括胰胃吻合术(pancreaticogastrostomy, PG)及胰空肠吻合术(pancreaticojejunostomy, PJ),大部分外科医生在PD中都会选择PJ,但至于哪种吻合方式更优越存在争议。最近发表的纳入了10项随机对照实验共1629名患者的荟萃分析报告了PG的优越性,PG组POPF和腹腔积液的总体发生率低于PJ组,但PG组术后出血发生率高于PJ组 [20] 。而加拿大一项纳入了98名患者的小型随机对照试验没有发现这两种吻合技术之间的差异 [21] 。

目前胰管支架的方式主要分为外引流和内引流,这是一个有争议的领域。一项纳入了7例随机对照试验共849名患者的荟萃分析结果表明,与不使用支架相比,胰管支架外引流与POPF发生率降低有关 [22] 。而美国一项纳入了444名患者的单中心研究发现,使用胰管支架内引流或外引流都没有保护作用,甚至表明一些并发症的发生与胰管支架的放置有关 [23] 。大部分外科医生在PD术后都会选择常规放置腹腔引流管。美国一项比较PD术后常规引流组与无引流组的随机对照试验被数据安全监察委员会叫停,因为与引流组相比,无引流组的死亡率更高(无引流组为12%,而引流组为3%) [24] 。一项纳入了1例随机对照研究及4例非随机对照研究共1728名患者的荟萃分析发现PD后无常规引流的患者死亡率显著高于对照组,尽管无常规引流与较低的总并发症率及再入院率相关。两组患者POPF、腹腔脓肿、术后出血、胆瘘、胃排空延迟、再手术或影像学引导的穿刺引流发生率均无显著差异 [25] 。结合以上,应在PD后常规留置腹腔引流管。

胰腺有丰富的血液供应,胰腺体尾部的血液主要由脾动脉、胃十二指肠动脉及肠系膜上动脉的分支供应 [26] 。因此,该区域的灌注不足可能与愈合不良及吻合口瘘有关。术中失血量多、手术时间长是POPF的一个重要危险因素 [14] [27] ,这可能是残余胰腺血流灌注不足引起。此外,如前文提到的,心肺功能较差的患者发生POPF的风险增加,这也可能与残余胰腺血流灌注不足有关。

多种胰腺术后POPF风险预测评分纳入了胰腺质地及胰管直径 [28] 。胰腺实质具有不同的硬度,可直接影响POPF的发生发展。还有一种原因是胰腺质地软及胰管直径小会增加手术吻合的难度,所以胰腺质地软通常与较高的POPF风险相关 [14] [29] [30] 。目前,胰腺质地主要由术者的触觉印象决定,对于如何客观地评价这一指标缺乏共识。一些研究在术中行超声弹性成像,以客观评价胰腺质地,研究结果表明术中超声弹性成像可以客观地评价胰腺质地,平均弹性小于2.2 m/s是PD后POPF的独立危险因素 [31] [32] [33] 。据报道,胰管直径小也是POPF的独立危险因素,胰腺质地软合并胰管直径小会使POPF的风险增加数倍 [8] [34] 。

胰腺手术后预防性使用生长抑素及其类似药物仍然是一个有争议的话题。一项纳入了15例随机对照研究共2221名患者的荟萃分析提示:术后预防性给予生长抑素及其类似药物后,实验组POPF发生率显著降低(实验组为17.7%,对照组为24.2%),但没有证据表明预防性使用生长抑素及其类似药物可以降低围手术期死亡率(实验组为3.2%,对照组为2.8%) [35] 。而另一项纳入了12例随机对照研究共1615名患者的荟萃分析结果提示术后预防性使用生长抑素及其类似药物对防止各级POPF的发生均无显著获益,术后预防性使用生长抑素及其类似药物并不能降低POPF的发生率 [36] 。

3. 胃排空延迟

胃排空延迟(delayed gastric emptying, DGE)是PD术后最常见的并发症,发病率约为19%~57% [37] 。DGE导致住院时间延长,医疗费用增加,术后生活质量下降。在过去的几十年里,DGE的定义和诊断不断发展。2007年,国际胰腺外科研究组对DGE进行了界定:当机械性原因如肠梗阻、吻合口狭窄、吻合口水肿等被排除,且胃镜和上消化道造影检查示胃扩张且无胃蠕动波时,有下列情形之一者可确诊为 DGE:(1) 术后留置胃管时间大于三天;(2) 拔除胃管后,出现恶心、呕吐等情况,并重新插胃管;(3) 手术七天后,患者仍不可进食固体食物 [38] 。

多项研究调查了DGE的病因及危险因素,但尚缺乏大容量、多中心随机对照试验验证。PD术后发生DGE的原因有很多种,其中一个主要原因是切除了十二指肠后,分泌的胃泌素的量减少。另一种可能性是胃大部切除时,胃窦及幽门处的交感神经及迷走神经被切断导致的胃蠕动功能障碍。此外,因术中分离所致的幽门及胃窦血流减少亦被视为DGE发生的原因之一 [39] 。许多文章证实,DGE的发生与糖尿病、肥胖(BMI ≥ 25 Kg/m2)、术式、消化道重建方式,POPF等相关 [40] [41] [42] 。

有些研究认为糖尿病及肥胖(BMI ≥ 25 Kg/m2)是PD术后发生DGE的危险因素,但还有待进一步证实。埃及一项纳入了588名患者的前瞻性研究发现,糖尿病及肥胖(BMI ≥ 25 Kg/m2)的患者PD术后发生DGE的风险增加 [43] ,可能的原因是高糖环境使患者胃壁肌层的卡哈尔氏间质细胞数量减少甚至缺失,从而影响胃排空功能,且肥胖患者更容易发生腹腔内感染,进而引起DGE的发生。而最近德国一项纳入了211名患者的回顾性研究指出尽管肥胖(BMI ≥ 25 Kg/m2)患者更容易发生POPF及腹腔感染,他们和对照组的DGE发生率及严重程度没有明显差异 [44] 。

术式及消化道重建方式对DGE的发生起着决定性作用。多项研究表明,相比不保留幽门的胰十二指肠切除术(pylorus-resecting pancreaticoduodenectomy, PRPD),保留幽门的胰十二指肠切除术(pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy, PPPD)术后DGE的发生率显著降低 [45] 。然而Panwar等研究发现,PPPD术中保留的幽门部容易缺血引起幽门痉挛,从而增加DGE的发生率 [46] 。结肠前消化道重建及Braun吻合术可有效降低PD术后DGE的发生:一项纳入了11项研究共1672名患者的荟萃分析发现,行Braun吻合术的患者发生DGE的比例为11.5%,而未行Braun吻合术的患者为26.6% [47] 。在另一项纳入了10项研究共1067名患者的荟萃分析发现,结肠前消化道重建DGE的发生率(9%)比结肠后消化道重建DGE发生率低(33%) [48] 。Meng 等发现PD术中行毕罗氏Ⅱ式吻合的患者比行其他胃肠吻合术式的患者更容易发生DGE [49] 。总之,术中因素与PD术后DGE发生的联系尚不清楚,其相关机制仍需要进一步研究。

POPF被认为会促进PD术后DGE的发生。一项纳入了31例研究,9205名患者的荟萃分析表明POPF为DGE独立危险因素 [41] 。这与POPF引起的含有胰腺外分泌酶的胰液外漏后腹腔内堆积,刺激胃壁神经和肠神经丛,从而影响了胃排空能力的恢复有关。

4. 术后出血

虽然PD术后出血(postpancreatectomy hemorrhage, PPH)的发病率不像其他并发症那么高,但会导致严重的不良后果。据报道,PPH的发病率及与PPH相关的死亡率分别为3%和16% [50] 。PPH根据出血时间,分为早期出血与晚期出血。早期出血定义为手术后前24小时内出血,晚期定义为手术后24小时以后的出血。PPH按严重程度分为轻度及重度两类:轻度PPH没有重大的临床影响,其发生与患者出院时间延迟无关;重度PPH会危及患者生命,需要调整既定的临床方案,包括进一步的诊断和干预,如输血,重返重症监护病房,以及潜在的侵入性治疗干预,如剖腹探查或介入栓塞 [51] 。已有多项研究报道了PPH的危险因素,众所周知的危险因素有术前胆红素水平高、POPF及腹腔感染 [50] [52] [53] [54] 。

多项研究提出,术前胆红素水平高是PPH的独立危险因素。中国一项纳入了1056名患者的回顾性研究发现,PD术后发生PPH的患者术前总胆红素水平显著高于未发生PPH的患者 [55] 。印度一项纳入了340名患者的回顾性研究指出,术前胆红素水平高是PPH发生的独立危险因素 [56] ,这可能是因为梗阻性黄疸会引起内毒素血症,损害免疫反应,影响患者的凝血功能,因此,术前充分减黄并予以维生素K等药物改善患者凝血功能是至关重要的。有趣的是,该项研究还发现尽管术前胆红素水平高是PPH发生的独立危险因素,但PPH的发生与术前胆道支架置入无显著相关性。

研究表明,POPF特别是合并胆漏时,可导致胃十二指肠动脉残端破裂出血。这可能是因为POPF发生时会导致胰蛋白酶、弹性蛋白酶和其他胰腺外分泌酶外溢对血管壁造成腐蚀。中国一项纳入了739名患者的回顾性研究指出,未发现与早期PPH相关的显著危险因素,然而胰管直径 < 0.4 cm、POPF是晚期PPH的独立危险因素,B级及以上的POPF患者PPH发生率高达50% [57] 。中国另一项纳入了445名患者的回顾性研究发现,POPF分级是PD术后发生PPH的独立危险因素,POPF的严重程度与PPH的发病率和严重程度密切相关 [58] 。然而,97%的轻度PPH患者没有出血的临床症状,可能会被临床医生忽略,所以需要大容量中心进一步进行前瞻性研究证实 [5] 。

腹腔感染会增加PD术后PPH发生的风险。日本一项纳入了1096名患者的回顾性研究发现,腹腔感染是PD术后PPH发生的独立危险因素 [50] ,这是因为累及胰腺周围血管的腹腔内感染会导致血管残端或假性动脉瘤破裂出血。所以术中应避免损伤血管形成假性动脉瘤,术后保持腹腔引流通畅是预防迟发性出血的关键。

5. 胆漏

PD术后,胆汁通过胆道系统的破口(或胆肠吻合口)流出胆道系统至腹腔或体外的过程被称为胆漏(biliary fistula, BF)。BF是PD术后较为少见的并发症之一,在大容量中心,PD后BF的发生率为3%~8% [59] 。在抗感染及营养支持的基础上,通过有效的腹腔引流,大部分胆瘘可自愈。故与POPF相比,BL得到的关注较少,因此很难找到具有统计学意义的危险因素。目前研究中提到的危险因素有肥胖(BMI ≥ 25 Kg/m2)、术前胆道手术史、胆管直径小、良性疾病等。

埃及一项纳入了550名患者的回顾性研究发现,肥胖(BMI ≥ 25 Kg/m2)、术前胆道手术史、胆管直径小(≤5 mm)、胆肠吻合术时间长会增加PD术后BF的发生率 [60] 。这可能是因为胆道手术史及胆管直径小会增加胆肠吻合的难度,从而延长吻合时间并增加BF风险。丹麦另一项纳入了552名患者的回顾性研究发现BMI与BF的发生无关,但术后病理为神经内分泌肿瘤的患者BF发生率比术后病理为胰腺导管腺癌的患者高(16%比3.2%) [61] 。总之,PD术后BF发生的危险因素缺少深入研究,其确切机制尚未阐明。

6. 腹腔感染

腹腔感染(intra-abdominal infection, IAI)是PD术后较为常见的并发症之一,其发生率约为4%~16%。在PD术后三天及以后,患者出现畏寒、高热、腹胀、肠麻痹等症状,实验室检查提示白细胞计数明显增高、低蛋白血症、贫血,影像学检查提示腹腔积液,可初步诊断为IAI,而穿刺抽吸液、腹腔引流液呈脓性或者是细菌培养阳性则能确诊 [4] 。IAI会延长患者住院时间,增加PPH发生的风险,导致围手术期死亡率升高。与PD术后IAI风险增加的相关因素有术前胆道引流史、POPF及围手术期输血史等。

多项研究已证实术前胆道引流会增加PD术后IAI的风险,这可能与肠道细菌逆行后在胆汁中繁殖,导致菌血症有关。日本一项纳入了133名患者的前瞻性研究中,PD术前胆道引流的患者有49%发生了IAI,而未接受术前胆道引流的患者只有16.7%发生了IAI [62] 。虽然术前胆道引流在是一个可改变的风险因素,但临床上常常需要术前减黄。如果患者黄疸且需要行新辅助治疗,为了预防胆管炎及改善患者的营养状况,术前胆道引流是必须的。此外如前文提到的,术前胆红素水平高是PPH的危险因素,所以在术前应平衡利弊,充分评估患者是否需要术前胆道引流。除此之外,该研究还发现胰腺质地软是IAI的独立危险因素,这可能是因为胰腺质地软可能会导致POPF,而带有细菌的胰液流出会进一步推进IAI的发生。美国另一项纳入了6869名患者的回顾性研究发现,围手术期输血的患者IAI发生率较高 [63] ,这可能与输血相关免疫调节有关。

7. 结论

综上所述,PD术后早期并发症的发生涉及诸多复杂的因素,并非单一因素影响的结果。PD术后早期并发症的发生仍然应以预防为主。因某些患者自身因素不能为临床医生所决定,故临床医生应当在可控制的危险因素方面做出积极的努力,有效减少术后并发症,提高患者的预后。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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