系统性红斑狼疮肺受累研究进展
Research Progress of Lung Involvement in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
DOI: 10.12677/ACM.2023.134896, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 235  浏览: 338 
作者: 杨真真:济宁医学院临床医学院,山东 济宁;李 健:济宁医学院附属医院,山东 济宁
关键词: 系统性红斑狼疮胸膜肺Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Pleuropulmonary Lung
摘要: 系统性红斑狼疮(Systemic Lupus Erythematosus)是一种累及多器官的自身免疫性疾病,包括肺受累。SLE肺受累的确切机制尚不清楚。SLE可以引起多种肺部疾病,包括狼疮性胸膜炎、胸腔积液、急性狼疮性肺炎、肺萎缩综合征、间质性肺病、弥漫性肺泡出血(DAH)、肺动脉高压和肺栓塞。SLE肺受累有许多诊断工具,包括胸部X线(CXR)、计算机断层扫描(CT)、肺功能检查(PFT)、支气管肺泡灌洗、活检、磁共振(MRI)、FDG-PET。治疗上一般采用皮质类固醇、环磷酰胺等免疫抑制疗法。本文就SLE肺受累的发病机制、诊断和治疗等方面的文献作一综述。
Abstract: Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease that involves multiple organs, including pulmonary involvement. The precise mechanism of lung involvement in SLE is unknown. SLE can cause various pulmonary diseases, including lupus pleuritis, pleural effusion, acute lupus pneu-monitis, shrinking lung syndrome, interstitial lung disease, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage (DAH), pulmonary arterial hypertension, and pulmonary embolism. Pleuropulmonary involvement in SLE requires many diagnostic tools, including chest X-ray (CXR), computed tomography (CT), pulmonary function tests (PFT), bronchoalveolar lavage, biopsy, MRI, FDG-PET. Immunosuppression therapies such as corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide are generally used in the treatment. This article re-views the literature on the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of SLE lung involvement.
文章引用:杨真真, 李健. 系统性红斑狼疮肺受累研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2023, 13(4): 6374-6383. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2023.134896

1. 引言

系统性红斑狼疮(SLE)是一种复杂的自身免疫性疾病,可能累及多器官,包括肺部受累、关节炎、光敏性皮疹、肾小球肾炎和细胞减少 [1] [2] 。SLE是一种异质性极强的疾病,其病理生理学尚不清楚 [3] 。遗传、环境和激素的复杂相互作用导致免疫失调和对自身抗原的耐受性的破坏,导致自身抗体产生、炎症和终末器官的破坏 [3] 。SLE患者的主要病理表现包括炎症、血管炎、免疫复合物沉积和血管病变。肺部表现,包括胸腔积液,在SLE中非常普遍 [4] 。50%~70%的SLE患者经历了从亚临床胸腔积液到危及生命的肺泡出血等肺部并发症,4%~5%的患者以肺部表现为症状 [4] 。儿童肺部表现较成人少,然而,它们可能是严重和致命的SLE并发症 [5] [6] 。与SLE相关的肺表现在儿童和成人SLE患者中有潜在的生命危险。深入了解SLE相关的肺部表现有助于早期诊断和阻碍病情进展。因此,本文就系统性红斑狼疮相关肺部疾病的发病机制、诊断和治疗进行综述。

2. 发病机制

SLE是一种以产生针对细胞核成分的抗体为特征的自身免疫性疾病。SLE患者的主要病理表现包括炎症、血管炎、免疫复合物沉积和血管病变。多疫耐受的丧失、抗原负荷的增加、T细胞活性过剩、B细胞抑制缺陷以及Th1向Th2免疫应答的转移导致细胞因子失衡、B细胞过度活跃和致病性自身抗体的产生 [7] 。炎症和免疫反应失调是自身免疫性疾病肺部病理的重要驱动因素 [8] 。SLE肺受累的确切机制尚不清楚,全身1型干扰素(IFN)、循环免疫复合物(IC)和中性粒细胞水平升高与SLE有关。SLE和肺部受累的患者全身促炎细胞因子水平增加 [9] [10] 。在肺受累患者中,促炎性细胞因子如IFN-γ、肿瘤坏死因子α (TNF-α)、白细胞介素6 (IL-6)、白细胞介素8 (IL-8)和白细胞介素12的水平比非肺受累患者高2~3倍,IL-8/IL-10的比值比限制性肺病患者高3倍 [9] [10] 。虽然炎症在肺纤维化进展中的作用尚不清楚,但细胞炎症,尤其是在疾病的早期阶段,与病理结果一致 [9] [10] 。作为最初炎症损伤(损伤、感染或抗体沉积)的影响,受损或激活的上皮或内皮细胞释放促炎细胞因子或趋化因子(如TNF-a、IL-1和IL-8),导致中性粒细胞的吸引和趋化,随后是单核细胞、巨噬细胞和T、B淋巴细胞 [9] [10] 。在SLE中,中性粒细胞在网状结构中释放DNA和组蛋白,从而进一步加剧炎症反应 [11] 。1型IFNs还在推动中性粒细胞网状结构、自身抗体产生和打破肺部免疫耐受中发挥重要作用 [12] 。启动因子(IFNS、自身抗体、免疫复合物、感染性损伤或损伤)和下游反应(补体激活、中性粒细胞积累和激活)之间的相互作用可能在驱动SLE相关肺受累中发挥重要作用 [12] 。

3. 诊断

肺部受累的诊断是通过使用不同的影像学工具 [13] 做出的,包括胸片、CT、肺功能检查、活检、支气管肺泡灌洗(BAL)、MRI、FDG-PET等。在慢性ILD和SLS的早期阶段,胸片图像可以显示正常的发现 [14] 。因此,胸片是评估SLE肺部受累最基本的影像学工具。利用高分辨率CT (HRCT)可以实现SLE患者肺部受累的早期诊断。HRCT有助于发现有症状和无症状SLE患者的早期肺受累。CT对SLE患者的肺功能有较准确的预测,对肺部受累患者有一定的诊断价值。PFT可作为SLE和亚临床肺疾病的有效诊断工具。PFT可以早期发现肺部受累的SLE患者 [15] 。活检只有在诊断不确定和其他发现非特异性时才使用 [16] 。BAL主要用于排除呼吸损害的其他原因。FDG-PET可以评估SLE-PAH患者的肺内疾病活动标志 [17] 。MRI可以证实SLE相关性肺萎缩综合征的胸膜炎。

4. 肺部受累类型

SLE可引起多种肺部疾病,如胸腔积液/胸膜炎、肺萎缩综合征、急性肺炎、DAH、慢性ILD和肺动脉高压 [14] 。胸膜炎是SLE最常见的胸内疾病,表现为胸痛、咳嗽、呼吸困难和胸腔积液 [18] [19] 。ALP和DAH是由肺泡–毛细血管单位受损引起的急性肺部疾病,而ILD是引起肺纤维化的慢性肺部疾病 [19] 。

4.1. 狼疮性胸膜炎

4.1.1. 临床表现

胸膜炎是胸膜组织的炎症,引起尖锐的胸痛(胸膜痛),在呼吸时加重。胸膜炎伴或不伴胸腔积液是SLE急性肺受累最常见的特征 [20] 。它的特征是胸痛、呼吸困难、呼吸急促、咳嗽,可能还有发热。狼疮性胸膜炎患者还会出现血气胸;然而,自发性气胸并不常见 [21] 。纤维胸是一种罕见的并发症,可通过阻止肺扩张而导致呼吸困难和呼吸急促 [22] 。

4.1.2. 治疗

狼疮胸膜炎的治疗方案因症状的严重程度而异。轻度胸膜炎可用非甾体抗炎药治疗 [23] ,肾功能受损的患者应避免使用非甾体抗炎药。某些情况下可加用羟氯喹等抗疟药 [24] 。全身皮质类固醇是严重狼疮性胸膜炎患者的首选药物。如果胸腔积液较多,可能需要抽吸以减轻呼吸困难 [22] 。对皮质类固醇没有反应或伴有肾脏受累的患者应考虑使用环磷酰胺 [23] 。其他选择包括霉酚酸酯(MMF)和利妥昔单抗。静脉注射免疫球蛋白(IVIG)不是狼疮性胸膜炎的主要治疗方法;然而,迈斯纳等人报道1个月的IVIG治疗有效地减少了SLE和严重胸膜炎患者的胸腔积液 [25] 。谢勒等人同时报道IVIG和环孢素联合治疗可减轻大量胸腔积液 [26] 。这些报告提示IVIG在严重狼疮患者中的效用;但其临床有效性尚需进一步研究证实。罕见的难治性胸腔积液患者对免疫抑制剂没有反应时,可能需要进行胸膜切除术,有报道通过开放手术切除胸骨成功地治疗了这类患者 [27] 。

4.2. 胸腔积液

4.2.1. 临床表现

根据EULAR/ACR_2019标准,与肺受累相关的唯一标准是胸腔积液,该标准的定义由影像学技术证明:超声、X线、CT扫描和MRI [28] 。系统性红斑狼疮的胸腔积液可能是由自身免疫性胸膜炎引起的,但与其他原因如感染、心脏病和肺结核难以区分 [3] 。因此,应建立更详细的胸腔积液标准。

4.2.2. 治疗

通常,SLE相关胸腔积液对皮质类固醇反应迅速 [29] 。然而,在某些情况下可出现持续性类固醇抵抗性胸腔积液。治疗这些病例的方法多种多样。 四环素胸膜固定术成功地治疗了一些SLE相关的激素抵抗性胸腔积液 [30] [31] 。1例系统性红斑狼疮相关难治性大量胸腔积液经胸膜切除术成功治疗 [32] 。

4.3. 急性狼疮性肺炎(ALP)

4.3.1. 临床表现

ALP是SLE一种不常见的表现 [33] 。ALP的临床表现与急性间质性肺炎相似,以急性发热、咳嗽和呼吸困难为特征 [34] 。有时,咯血时伴有呼吸急促、心动过速、吸气爆裂、体检时低氧血症等。半数ALP患者以肺炎作为SLE的初始表现 [34] 。组织病理学检查可发现弥漫性肺泡损害、肺泡水肿、透明膜形成、单个核细胞浸润。免疫球蛋白和补体沉积可能存在于毛细血管壁 [35] [36] 。也可以看到肺泡出血,而血管炎是不常见 [35] 。胸部X线片显示弥漫或斑片状混浊,主要发生在肺下段。需要与感染、组织性肺炎、肺栓塞、药物毒性、DAH、心力衰竭和恶性肿瘤相鉴别 [36] 。

4.3.2. 治疗

感染的发病率高,应立即给予经验广谱抗生素治疗 [37] 。在排除感染性病因后,必须启动积极的免疫抑制治疗。可以考虑大剂量静脉注射甲基强的松龙、口服皮质类固醇和静脉注射环磷酰胺 [38] 。此外,利妥昔单抗的成功治疗已有报道 [39] 。血浆置换和静脉注射免疫球蛋白已用于难治病例 [40] 。

4.4. 弥漫性肺泡出血

4.4.1. 临床表现

患有DAH的患者表现为呼吸困难、咳嗽、发烧、带血的痰,有时咯血,症状在几小时或几天内迅速发展 [32] 。典型的情况包括血红蛋白水平下降和弥漫性肺浸润在胸部X线或高分辨率胸部CT上可见 [41] 。感染可与DAH相关,应排除作为鉴别诊断 [42] 。当BALF中含有≥20%含铁血黄素的巨噬细胞时,BAL可用于确认DAH [32] 。

4.4.2. 治疗

治疗方面,DAH尚无具体的治疗指南;然而,经常使用大剂量甲基强的松龙 [43] 。环磷酰胺是另一种选择,但其有效性存在争议。一项研究中,血浆置换与环磷酰胺或甲基强的松龙联合使用;然而,其作为单一疗法的有效性尚未确立 [44] 。然而,最近的研究表明,对肺出血患者进行早期和积极的治疗可以提高存活率 [45] ,包括大剂量类固醇、IVIG和环磷酰胺的治疗 [46] 。用适当的抗生素管理这些患者对降低死亡率非常重要 [47] 。此外,替代性和实验性治疗方法,如脐带来源的间充质干细胞移植,被证明可以改善结局 [48] [49] 。

4.5. 间质性肺病(ILD)

4.5.1. 临床表现

SLE相关性间质性肺疾病(SLE-ILD)的真实患病率不明;然而,据报告流行率为3%~9% [34] [38] [50] 。非特异性间质性肺炎(NSIP)、机化性肺炎、淋巴细胞性间质性肺炎(LIP)、滤泡性毛细支气管炎、结节性淋巴样增生和普通间质性肺炎与SLE有关。其中NSIP最为常见 [51] 。SLE-ILD患者在体检中通常表现为隐匿性慢性无生产力咳嗽、呼吸困难、运动耐受性下降和基底动脉爆裂,但有些患者没有症状 [52] 。

4.5.2. 治疗

SLE相关性ILD的治疗主要基于专家意见 [53] 。最近的治疗算法建议单独使用皮质类固醇或环磷酰胺或MMF诱导治疗和硫唑嘌呤或MMF维持治疗。

4.6. 肺萎缩综合征

4.6.1. 临床表现

SLS是一种罕见的SLE并发症。SLS作为主要呼吸道SLE症状的出现是非常罕见的 [54] [55] 。所有SLS患者均有呼吸困难、咳嗽、胸膜性胸痛等呼吸道症状 [56] [57] 。SLS的特点是PFT上肺体积进行性减少,胸部CT上没有间质性疾病或明显的胸膜疾病的证据 [57] [58] 。

4.6.2. 治疗

SLS的治疗由于其罕见的发病率,目前尚无临床指南。然而,许多与SLE相关的SLS病例已被单独应用糖皮质激素或其他免疫抑制剂,如环磷酰胺、硫唑嘌呤、MTX和霉酚酸酯 [56] [59] [60] 。茶碱和β激动剂可以帮助膈肌无力 [61] [62] [63] 。利妥昔单抗也被成功地用作单药治疗或与环磷酰胺和β激动剂联合使用,特别是在类固醇难治的病例中 [59] [64] [65] 。其他药物在类固醇失败后已成功使用;在Robles-Perez等人的一项回顾性研究中,6/18名患者报告了利妥昔单抗的不良反应 [66] 。Belimumab被批准用于非肾性SLE,一个病例报告显示SLS症状改善;然而,还需要进一步的研究 [67] 。

4.7. 肺动脉高压

4.7.1. 临床表现

PAH是一种罕见的并发症,它可能导致右心室或肺毛细血管的不可逆改变,造成PAH患者的高死亡率 [68] 。在大型队列研究中,大约2%~5%的SLE患者被诊断为PAH [69] [70] 。SLE和PAH之间的诊断延迟期约为3~5年 [69] [71] 。5年生存率70%~80% [69] [71] 。系统性高血压、高纤维蛋白原水平、浆膜炎和血小板减少是SLE的临床危险因素,表明其他器官系统的并发症可能导致SLE的肺部表现 [69] [70] 。硬皮病样甲襞毛细血管形态和雷诺现象也是SLE患者PAH的重要危险因素,这与硬皮病和PAH之间的关系是一致的 [71] [72] 。许多研究发现,高水平的抗SSA/SSB、抗心磷脂和抗RNP抗体预测PAH的发病率更高 [71] [72] [73] 。高水平的抗U1-RNP抗体也表明更长的生存期,尽管PAH患者的SLE发病率更高 [71] 。

4.7.2. 治疗

以静脉注射环磷酰胺为基础的免疫抑制疗法已经成功地用于几项研究。因此,静脉注射环磷酰胺和强的松龙可降低肺动脉压 [74] [75] 。除了免疫抑制疗法外,血管扩张剂也是有效的 [76] [77] 。多项研究表明,静脉应用前列醇(前列环素)可使肺动脉压恢复正常 。

4.8. 肺栓塞

4.8.1. 临床表现

肺栓塞(PE)是一种罕见但可能致命的系统性红斑狼疮肺部并发症,多项人群研究表明SLE患者明显更容易发生PE和相关临床表现,如深静脉血栓形成,这种关联与年龄、性别、种族和先前存在的患者共病无关 [57] [78] 。在SLE患者中,PE的总患病率为1%~5% [78] [79] 。PE的危险因素包括高体重指数、快速进展的SLE、低白蛋白血症、抗磷脂抗体和高剂量的糖皮质激素 [79] 。

4.8.2. 治疗

对SLE相关性PE的治疗方面研究数量有限;以下建议一般适用于PE。诊断或怀疑PE时应早期使用抗凝治疗,以降低其死亡率 [80] 。对于大量PE或持续性低血压(收缩压 < 90 mmHg)的患者,胸部指南推荐溶栓作为2级B推荐 [81] 。在大量PE患者中,溶栓的好处通常大于风险,除非有活动性、未控制的出血 [82] 。此外,当单一抗凝治疗不能控制血栓形成时,可能需要皮质类固醇或免疫抑制剂的强化治疗 [83] 。

4.9. 药物毒性与系统性红斑狼疮肺损害

ILD和ALP的药物毒性和肺受累可由多种药物引起,药物性肺部疾病应与SLE的肺受累相鉴别。一些肺部疾病是由治疗剂引起的基础疾病,如结缔组织病和癌症 [84] 。由于影像学研究可以区分这两种情况,在评估SLE肺部受累之前开始使用新药物的历史应该被考虑来诊断ILD和ALP [85] 。

5. 结论

SLE患者中有很多肺部受累。胸膜炎、弥漫性肺泡出血、缩肺综合征、间质性肺病、肺动脉高压是肺部疾病的主要表现。一些患者出现严重并发症,如肺出血。因此,对SLE患者肺部受累的评估和治疗应及时进行。推荐CXR、HRCT和PFT作为诊断工具。临床医生和患者对SLE呼吸系统的影响认识较少。此外,SLE肺部受累的确切诊断标准仍然难以确定。因此,应更多重视SLE肺部表现的积极监测和处理。

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