胰腺癌的吉西他滨耐药机制
Mechanisms of Gemcitabine Resistance in Pancreatic Cancer
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2026.162492, PDF, HTML, XML,    科研立项经费支持
作者: 章 靓, 亓同钢*:山东大学齐鲁第二医院基础医学研究所,山东 济南
关键词: 吉西他滨化疗耐药胰腺癌分子机制Gemcitabine Chemotherapy Resistance Pancreatic Cancer Molecular Mechanisms
摘要: 胰腺癌作为致死率极高的恶性肿瘤,严重威胁着人类的健康。吉西他滨作为胰腺癌治疗的基石,其临床应用中普遍存在的耐药性极大限制了治疗效果。本文阐述了胰腺癌的治疗现状和吉西他滨的临床应用,回顾了关于吉西他滨的作用机制、代谢转运、化疗耐药的最新知识,重点从分子机制、肿瘤微环境、表观遗传学、干细胞等多方面介绍吉西他滨的耐药机制。在讨论各方面的耐药机制的同时,发现相关可干预的靶点,简单介绍了有前景的相关耐药规避策略。同时,讨论了新型治疗措施纳米颗粒,为治疗吉西他滨耐药的胰腺恶性肿瘤提供新思路。
Abstract: Pancreatic cancer, as a malignant tumor with an extremely high mortality rate, poses a grave threat to human health. As a cornerstone of pancreatic cancer treatment, the widespread occurrence of resistance in the clinical application of gemcitabine significantly limits therapeutic efficacy. This paper outlines the current state of pancreatic cancer treatment and the clinical application of gemcitabine. It reviews the latest knowledge on gemcitabine’s mechanism of action, metabolic transport, and chemotherapy resistance, focusing on the mechanisms of gemcitabine resistance from multiple perspectives, including molecular mechanisms, tumor microenvironment, epigenetics, and stem cells. Whilst discussing these diverse resistance mechanisms, the paper identifies relevant interventionable targets and briefly outlines promising strategies for circumventing resistance. Furthermore, it explores novel therapeutic approaches involving nanoparticles, offering fresh perspectives for treating gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic malignancies.
文章引用:章靓, 亓同钢. 胰腺癌的吉西他滨耐药机制[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(2): 1112-1121. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.162492

1. 引言

1.1. 胰腺癌的流行病学与治疗现状

胰腺癌(Pancreatic Cancer, PC)是最致命的恶性肿瘤之一,其中胰导管腺癌(Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, PDAC)约占90%。因缺乏早期特异症状,绝大多数患者在确诊时已处于晚期,肿瘤往往已发生转移。因此,PC患者的预后普遍较差,诊断后的中位生存期不足五个月,即使进入缓解期,五年生存率也低于5% [1]。据全球癌症统计数据,2022年全球新增510,992人罹患胰腺癌,死亡人数为467,409 [2],预计2030年胰腺癌将成为第二大癌症相关死亡原因[3]

目前,PC的主要治疗方法包括化疗和手术,然而,只有极少数患者在确诊时符合手术指征,且即使进行手术,3年后复发率高达60%。无论手术是否可行,大多数患者仍需接受全身化疗。目前PC临床一线治疗方案包括5-氟尿嘧啶(5-FU)、白油氨酸、依立替康和草沙利铂的组合(FOLFIRINOX),还有吉西他滨与白蛋白紫杉醇结合(nab-paclitaxel)的经典高效疗法[4] [5]

1.2. GEM的作用机制与临床应用

吉西他滨(Gemcitabine, GEM)是一种合成脱氧胞苷核苷类似物,是PC药物治疗的基石。GEM在人类平衡核苷转运蛋白(hENTs)和人凝聚核苷转运蛋白(hCNT)的辅助下穿透细胞脂质膜,脱氧胞苷激酶(dCK)将其磷酸化为单磷酸(dFdCMP),接着被核苷酸激酶转化为二氟脱氧胞苷三磷酸(dFdCTP)。在DNA合成过程中,dFdCTP掺入新合成的DNA链中,导致DNA链的合成受到干扰[6]。此外,GEM的单磷酸还可被脱氨生成dFdUMP,作为胸苷酸合酶的抑制剂增强抗癌效果;GEM代谢物还可抑制其他代谢酶从而增强细胞毒性。

近年来,GEM在治疗多种恶性肿瘤方面取得显著进展,但胰腺癌患者对单剂GEM治疗并不敏感。这提示了存在内源性或获得性GEM耐药,严重限制患者的临床获益。因此,深入研究PC对GEM的耐药性机制至关重要。

2. GEM耐药分子机制

2.1. 转运代谢相关耐药

人平衡核苷转运蛋白-1 (hENT1)促进核苷及其衍生药物的跨膜运输,在癌症化疗中发挥重要作用[7]。GEM是核苷类似物,主要通过hENT1转运体的介导进入细胞。有研究指出,hENT1高表达与PC患者更长的生存期显著相关,hENT1可作为该类患者的重要预后指标[8]。有争议的是,另一些研究者认为,hENT1的表达与PC患者的预后无关[9] [10]。但不可否认的是,hENT1表达降低可能是GEM的耐药机制之一。胸苷酸合酶(TS)抑制剂的预处理可提升hENT1表达,增强GEM治疗效果[11];而胸苷酸合酶抑制剂5-氟尿嘧啶(5-FU)的类似发现也可通过增加hENT1表达增强GEM治疗敏感性[12]。另外,跨膜糖蛋白粘青素4 (MUC4)可通过NF-κB途径抑制hCNT1表达,沉默致癌受体(MUC4的膜伴侣)通过上调hCNT1和hCNT3表达,进而提高GEM敏感性[13] [14]

脱氧胞苷激酶(DCK)是一种通过磷酸化激活GEM、促进胞内药物积累的关键酶。研究者发现,DCK失活在获得GEM耐药性中起着关键作用,且并不影响癌细胞增殖[15] [16]。治疗前的dCK蛋白水平与GEM治疗后的总体生存率相关也证实这一点[17]

核糖核苷酸还原酶(RR)是新生核苷酸合成途径中的关键酶,RR活性增加会扩增dNTP池,通过直接分子竞争减少GEM掺入DNA。研究表明,GEM耐药PC细胞系中RR亚基M1 (RRM1)过度表达,且与GEM的疗效存在显著关联,验证了RR是GEM耐药性的关键酶之一[18]。干预限速酶疗法面临挑战,这与靶点生物学复杂性、精准调控难度及耐药网络冗余性相关。

2.2. DNA损伤修复途径激活

GEM干扰DNA链合成并引起损伤,癌细胞中DNA损伤修复能力增强是耐药性的关键,同源重组(HR)是修复DNA双链断裂(DSBs)和保持基因组完整性的重要机制。临床上,超过15%的PC患者携带DNA损伤响应基因(如BRCA)突变,导致同源重组(HR)缺乏表型,而GEM的联合治疗在该类患者中取得良好疗效[19] [20]。近年,Calheiros等人首创同源重组DNA修复抑制剂BBIT20,不仅上调hENT1转运蛋白增强GEM的摄取,还下调miR-20a水平及参与嘧啶代谢的关键酶,如RRM1等[21] [22],均与GEM耐药性相关。

氧化性DNA碱基损伤的积累会严重破坏基因组的完整性,且与癌症发展密切相关[23]。碱基切除修复(BER)具有诱变性或基因毒性的DNA碱基损伤,BER基因的缺乏将影响肿瘤抑制因子和致癌基因对内源性氧化应激或环境致癌物的响应能力[24]。肿瘤细胞常常通过增强BER来抵御氧化应激,修复药物毒性或细胞静态碱基损伤,因此靶向BER被认为是通过DNA损伤压倒癌细胞并提升放疗和化疗疗效的有效策略[25],但相关药物并未纳入研究。作为BER通路中的关键蛋白,APE1已被证明能促进细胞存活和对多种化疗药物的耐药性[26]-[28],而APE1的下调能使PC细胞对包括GEM在内的多种临床常见化疗药物的敏感性显著提高[29]

2.3. 常见细胞信号通路与耐药

刺猬(Hedgehog)信号传导促进肿瘤发生及纤维化病变形成,改变肿瘤微环境,对异常增殖和肿瘤发生至关重要[30] [31]。基因分析显示,Hh是PC中最常改变的通路之一[32]。该通路异常活化不仅促进肿瘤发生和上皮–间质转化,还通过影响凋亡相关蛋白的表达,被证明与化疗耐药密切相关。多项研究表明,抑制Hh信号途径与GEM在PC细胞系和小鼠异种移植中具有协同效应[33]-[35]。维莫德吉(Vismodegib)是靶点为SMO蛋白的Hh抑制剂,在联合GEM治疗PDAC的II期临床试验并未显著提高PC患者生存期,考虑可能与Hh通路的旁分泌及复杂的肿瘤微环境相关。

转录因子核因子κB (NF-κB)通路是重要的促生存和炎症通路,其激活上调多种抗凋亡蛋白,促进炎症因子分泌,参与塑造免疫抑制微环境,与GEM耐药性相关。最初,人们在GEM耐药性PC细胞中发现NF-κB水平偏高[36],而后续有研究表明,抑制NF-κB仅对GEM敏感的PC细胞系而言可提升治疗效果,耐药性PC细胞并不依赖NF-κB作为主要生存通路[37]。NF-κB通路的异常激活是PC产生GEM耐药性的关键因素之一,因NF-κB广泛参与正常机体生理过程,目前直接靶向NF-κB疗法尚未成功。

KRAS是最常被激活的致癌基因之一,超过90% PC存在KRAS基因突变。致癌性KRAS突变通常会提高活性GTP结合形式的蛋白质稳态水平,推动通过下游效应通路驱动原肿瘤信号传导,如有丝分裂原激活蛋白激酶(MAPK)和磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(PI3K)通路[38]。多项实验表明,在体外和体内实验中,KRAS抑制都能提高PC对GEM治疗的敏感性[39] [40]。目前,KRAS抑制剂如针对G12D突变的HRS-4642、针对泛G12突变的RMC-6236等已获得突破性研究进展,前者的单药疗法已在晚期经治PC患者中显示出初步疗效。

丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶(Akt)参与调控细胞增殖与存活、血管生成和葡萄糖代谢等[41]。磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(PI3K)是Akt的上游激活因子,在PC中,PI3K/Akt信号通路的失调与GEM化学耐药性相关[42]。Akt一方面通过调控IKK、MDM2和CREB介导的信号,进一步调控细胞凋亡的转录;另一方面可直接调控凋亡蛋白表达。现已有多种Akt的靶向抑制剂被开发,并陆续进入临床实验[43]。其单药疗效有限,联合治疗是明确趋势。

Ras/Raf/MAPK(MEK)/ERK通路是有丝分裂蛋白激酶(MAPK)信号通路中最重要的信号级联反应,参与调控细胞增殖、存活、代谢、凋亡等[44] [45],该通路障碍是几乎所有癌症中最常见的致癌诱因[46] [47]。ERK级联反应的持续激活驱使癌细胞生长,抑制RAS-MAPK级联中下游靶点是一种有前景的治疗策略。先前研究报告称,抑制ERK信号通路可使癌细胞对化疗的敏感性增加[48],然而,另有研究表明该通路激活在化疗药物诱导的凋亡中可起促进作用[49] [50]。值得注意的是,尽管ERK通路的本质性激活可能是化疗耐药的标志,但该通路对PC细胞化疗耐药的影响依赖药物[51]。相关抑制剂研究进展值得期待,例如Akt-ERK双通路抑制剂ONC201,能同时阻断两条关键通路并诱导凋亡,在前期研究中与GEM前药联用协同抑制PDAC [52],目前该药正处于向临床转化阶段。

3. 肿瘤微环境介导的耐药

PC细胞对GEM化疗药物的耐药性研究,不仅要针对癌细胞本身,还要针对肿瘤微环境(TME)。复杂的TME在癌症发展中发挥着关键作用,也对GEM的耐药作出不可忽视的贡献[53]-[56]

PC细胞周围有胰腺星状细胞、免疫细胞、内皮细胞和神经细胞等细胞成分,其中胰腺星状细胞产生胶原蛋白间质。胰腺星状细胞(PSCs)能通过Notch信号通路诱导对GEM的化疗耐药[54]。PSCs通过旁分泌SDF-1α/CXCR4信号引发PC细胞的IL-6自分泌环[53],还通过分泌肿瘤干细胞(CSC)特异性配体肝细胞生长因子并结合其受体,这些都可促进GEM治疗耐药性[57]。与此同时,TME中浸润的免疫细胞可促进侵袭性肿瘤中的化疗耐药和转移性扩散,而靶向肿瘤浸润巨噬细胞可有效克服耐药性[58]。早期有药物PEGPH20通过降解透明质酸靶向肿瘤基质,但在III期临床试验中未能显著延长生存期,这提示单纯消除基质抗肿瘤效果有限,可能与TME高度复杂及肿瘤异质性相关。现有新药物PXS-5505旨在重塑基质而非消除,减少肿瘤纤维化和基质硬化,在临床前研究中能较好地促进GEM疗效,现正积极推进转化临床试验。

低氧环境与多种癌症耐药性有关[59]。在PC中,缺氧主要通过PI3K/Akt/NF-κB通路,部分通过MAPK (Erk)通路诱导PC细胞对GEM产生耐药性[60]。癌症相关成纤维细胞(CAFs)是位于TME中的纺锤形非肿瘤细胞,一方面产生致密胶原网络阻止化疗药物递送,另一方面,密集的间质和血管发育不良会导致严重缺氧[61]。之前的研究表明,缺氧可促进氧诱导因子(HIF)的产生,这些因子促进上皮间质转化,且在耐药PC中过度表达[62]。缺氧诱导因子1α (HIF1α)可介导葡萄糖摄取增加,增强了肿瘤细胞的抗凋亡能力,而抑制HIF-1α被证实可提升GEM的敏感性[63] [64]。HIF-1α还能通过抑制hENT1和hENT2的转录,降低核苷转运蛋白的表达,减少GEM的细胞吸收[65] [66]

TME中肿瘤坏死因子α (TNFα)、转化生长因子β (TGF-β)、HIF1α及信号通路如Notch促使癌细胞发生上皮–间充质转变(EMT) [67],这对PC的早期传播、肿瘤侵袭和晚期转移至关重要。研究表明,EMT调节因子维持PC的药物耐药性,而靶向沉默可提升药物敏感性[68]。直接抑制EMT也会提高核苷转运蛋白表达水平、增强GEM治疗的敏感性并提高实验动物生存率[69]。除此之外,EMT还与CSC相互联系、共同调控耐药性[70]。最新研究显示,谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4 (GPX4)抑制剂ML210通过诱导膜脂质过氧化,从而抑制EMT、增强GEM抗癌效果,这提供了一个新的潜在联合治疗策略[71]

4. 表观遗传学调控与耐药

GEM耐药同样涉及表观遗传修饰,指基因表达的可遗传变化,不涉及DNA序列的改变。微小RNA (miRNA)在转录后水平调控基因,在正常细胞癌变和肿瘤发展中起关键作用。多种miRNA与GEM耐药性相关。例如,microRNA-210过表达可诱导caspase-3介导的凋亡,并抑制集落形成,且能增强GEM敏感性[72]。miRNA可调控PDAC中的K-Ras、PI3K-AKT、NF-kB、P53和Hedgehog通路,且靶向miRNA已被证明能在多种环境中诱导PDAC细胞的化学或放射敏感性变化[73]。miRNA靶向疗法通过抑制或恢复特定miRNA表达增强疗效,是目前PC治疗研究的前沿领域,但因投递、脱靶、毒性等因素仍面临巨大挑战。

长非编码RNA (lncRNA)是一种内源性细胞RNA。越来越多的证据表明,lncRNA在包括PC在内的多种癌症中调控其恶性特征。转移相关肺腺癌转录本1 (MALAT-1),一种高度进化保守且广泛表达的lncRNA,在PC中过度表达,增加胰腺CSC的比例,降低GEM化学敏感性并加速体外肿瘤血管生成[74]。MALAT-1的高表达与GEM耐药及低生存率相关,因而可作为GEM疗效预测标志物。HOTAIR是一种长期间隔的非编码RNA,在PC中表达更高,其促致癌活性已被证明,可作为胰腺癌负性预后因子[75]。Wang等人首次证明,胰腺CSC中由GEM诱导的lncRNA HOTAIR,促进了增殖和迁移,减弱凋亡并增加化疗耐药,可作为潜在干预调控因子和新颖治疗靶点[76]

DNA甲基化修饰通常导致转录抑制,因为CpG岛的甲基化抑制了转录因子与基因启动子区域的结合[77]。Schlafen-11 (SLFN11)是一种DNA损伤应答蛋白,影响GEM在内的多种化疗药物的敏感性。近年来,SLFN11与细胞对化疗药物敏感性之间的高度相关性引发越来越多的关注[78],启动子甲基化可能是SLFN11表达水平下降的主要原因[79]。有研究表明,热休克蛋白β-1 (HSPB1)在PC中发挥促进肿瘤作用,通过减少启动子甲基化可增强PC中的GEM抗性[80],这为解决GEM耐药性PC提供了新的视角。

组蛋白修饰为基因表达的快速调控提供保障,也与核苷类药物治疗癌症过程中出现的化疗耐药性息息相关。例如,促自噬基因CSNK2A1的转录调控由PDAC中的H3K27乙酰化介导,增强的自噬驱动GEM耐药性[81]。在长期使用GEM治疗胰腺癌时,胞苷脱氨酶CDA的组蛋白乙酰化迅速增加,导致溶酶体中GEM的降解,转化为细胞外非活性代谢物[82]。尽管临床前数据可观,但临床转化仍面临难题。组蛋白去乙酰化酶抑制剂恩替诺特(Entinostat)的II期试验结果显示,单一的靶向组蛋白去乙酰化酶不足以为PC患者带来可观的生存获益,这推动了后续研究从单靶点抑制向多通路联合的转向。

5. 肿瘤干细胞与耐药

部分具有无限自我更新潜力的肿瘤细胞称为肿瘤干细胞(CSCs),与其他肿瘤细胞相比,CSCs对GEM的化疗耐药性也更显著。Yin等人的研究表明,CSC富集显著提高PC肿瘤迁移能力和GEM耐药性,而靶向抑制CSC代表了一种克服胰腺癌化疗耐药性和转移的新治疗策略[83]。CSCs主要通过提升ATP结合盒转运蛋白的表达、规避细胞死亡、高表达解毒酶如醛脱氢酶(ALDH)、调控EMT以及逃避免疫监测来调控药物耐药性[84]。因CSCs高耐药性,相关药物旨在靶向表面标志物或关键信号通路调节代谢。先前药物研究主要靶向如Notch、Hedgehog等单一通路,大多因CSCs信号网络冗余性宣告失败。针对CD47抗体药物如Magrolimab仍处于II期研究,后续可持续关注。

6. 结论与挑战

胰腺癌号称“癌中之王”,其化疗药物GEM作为具有潜力的临床化疗药物,耐药性是除其本身复杂性之外的公认治疗难点,为临床治疗带来挑战。尽管许多标志物在研究中展示出了预测价值,但仍缺乏相关标准化检测方法及大规模前瞻性临床试验验证。目前,纳米技术投递药物在体外和体内均展现出较大前景,其特点在于延长药物释放,将药物送达目标位点,增强细胞内部吸收,是克服耐药性的新型策略[85] [86]。尽管如此,纳米技术仍面临诸多挑战,例如对机体免疫网络的影响尚不可知,潜在免疫原性限制疗效,存在促进肿瘤转移潜在风险等[87],需进一步优化和深入研究。

近年来,多种GEM化学耐药性和敏感性相关分子机制和通路已被报道,但通路网络复杂冗余,抑制单一通路易引发旁路代偿性激活,一些网络机制尚不完全明了。通过研究GEM耐药机制,发现新的治疗方向与新靶点,为治疗顽固的GEM耐药性胰腺癌提供新思路;而如何通过合理组合化疗、靶向治疗、免疫治疗及微环境调节等改善GEM耐药性,仍需系统探索。

基金项目

山东省自然科学基金资助项目(ZR2020MH224)。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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