脑内胆固醇与脑小血管病的研究进展
Research Progress on Intracranial Cholesterol and Cerebral Small-Vessel Disease
摘要: 脑小血管病(cerebral small-vessel disease, CSVD)是我国常见的神经系统疾病,起病隐匿但危害深远,随着人口老龄化加剧,其发病率持续上升,给社会和家庭带来沉重负担。CSVD的临床表现异质性强,影像学检查是主要诊断手段,典型表现包括腔隙性脑梗塞(Lacuanar infarct, LI)、脑白质高信号(white matter hyperintensity, WMH)、血管周围间隙扩大(enlarged perivascular space, EPVS)、脑微出血(cerebral microbleed, CMB)等。胆固醇作为可调控的心血管危险因素,其对CSVD的影响及机制与大血管病存在差异,且即使低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, LDL-C)控制在目标范围内,仍存在CSVD发病风险。近年来,胆固醇代谢产物,如24-S-羟基胆固醇(24-S-hydroxycholesterol, 24-OHC)在CSVD中的作用逐渐受到关注。本文综述胆固醇的脑内合成、转运及代谢过程,重点探讨胆固醇及其代谢产物与CSVD典型影像学表现相关的发病机制,并展望未来研究方向与治疗前景,为CSVD的精准干预提供参考。
Abstract: Cerebral small-vessel disease (CSVD) is a common neurological disorder in China. It has an insidious onset but poses serious long-term risks. With the acceleration of population aging, its incidence continues to rise, placing a heavy burden on society and families. The clinical manifestations of CSVD are highly heterogeneous, and imaging examinations serve as the primary diagnostic tools. Typical imaging features include lacunar infarcts (LI), white matter hyperintensity (WMH), enlarged perivascular spaces (EPVS), and cerebral microbleeds (CMB). Cholesterol, as a modifiable cardiovascular risk factor, exerts different effects and mechanisms on CSVD compared to large vessel diseases. Moreover, even when low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is controlled within target ranges, the risk of CSVD persists. In recent years, cholesterol metabolites, such as 24-S-hydroxycholesterol (24-OHC), have garnered increasing attention for their potential role in CSVD. This article reviews the processes of cholesterol synthesis, transport, and metabolism in the brain, with a focus on exploring the pathogenesis linking cholesterol and its metabolites to typical imaging manifestations of CSVD. It also outlines future research directions and therapeutic prospects, aiming to provide insights for the precise intervention of CSVD.
文章引用:王感恩, 张晓璇. 脑内胆固醇与脑小血管病的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(2): 2123-2129. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.162610

1. 引言

脑小血管病(cerebral small-vessel disease, CSVD)是一组以脑内小血管病变为核心的临床综合征,涵盖急性缺血性和慢性隐匿性两种类型。急性缺血性CSVD表现为特定腔隙综合征,慢性CSVD早期常无明显症状,随病情进展可出现认知障碍、运动障碍等多种神经功能缺损,严重影响患者生活质量。头颅MRI是CSVD诊断的金标准,可清晰显示腔隙性脑梗塞(LI)、脑白质高信号(WMH)、血管周围间隙扩大(EPVS)、脑微出血(CMB)等特征性表现[1]

CSVD的发病机制复杂,目前尚未完全明确,已知与慢性缺血/低灌注、内皮功能障碍、血脑屏障(BBB)破坏、炎性反应及遗传因素等相关[2]。既往研究证实,年龄、高血压、胆固醇异常等是CSVD的独立危险因素,其中高胆固醇通过促进动脉粥样硬化、增加血管脆性、加重炎症反应等机制参与血管损伤,在脑血管病一、二级预防中,血脂异常调控是关键措施,核心目标为控制低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL-C) [3]。然而,近年研究发现,LDL-C达标后仍存在CSVD发病风险,提示胆固醇代谢相关通路可能在CSVD发生发展中发挥更复杂的作用[4]。胆固醇代谢产物(如24-OHC)作为脑内胆固醇稳态调节的关键分子,其与CSVD的关联成为研究热点。本文系统梳理胆固醇的脑内代谢过程,深入分析其与CSVD典型病理改变的关联机制,为CSVD的临床干预提供新思路。

2. 胆固醇的脑内代谢过程

2.1. 胆固醇的合成

由于血脑屏障(BBB)的屏障作用,血液中胆固醇难以进入脑组织,脑内胆固醇主要通过从头合成产生。在成人大脑,星形胶质细胞是胆固醇合成的主要场所,神经元也可少量合成[5]。星形胶质细胞通过Bloch途径,经24-脱氢胆固醇还原酶催化生成胆固醇;神经元则通过Kandutsch-Russel途径,以7-烯胆固醇烷醇和7-脱氢胆固醇为中间产物,在7-脱氢胆固醇还原酶作用下转化为胆固醇[6] [7]

2.2. 胆固醇的转运

脑内合成的胆固醇需与星形胶质细胞产生的载脂蛋白E (ApoE)结合形成脂蛋白,通过星形胶质细胞膜上的ATP结合盒(ABC)转运蛋白分泌至细胞外液,进而转运至神经元[8] [9]。含ApoE的脂蛋白可被原型LDL受体(LDLR)和LDL受体相关蛋白1 (LRP1)介导摄取,其中LDLR在星形胶质细胞中高表达,LRP1主要表达于神经元[10]。经受体介导的胞吞作用后,ApoE可循环至质膜,而转运的胆固醇参与脑组织多项生理功能,包括细胞膜更新修复、髓鞘形成、突触发生及神经递质释放[11]

2.3. 胆固醇的代谢产物

为维持脑内胆固醇稳态,过量胆固醇通过三条途径代谢:① 酯化后储存于脂滴;② 经ABC转运蛋白直接排泄;③ 转化为氧甾醇24-S-羟基胆固醇(24-OHC),其中第三条途径是最关键的稳态调节机制,负责至少40%的脑胆固醇代谢[12] [13]。该过程由神经元特异性酶CYP46A1催化,CYP46A1在皮质锥体细胞、小脑浦肯野细胞等神经元中高表达,使这些细胞对过量胆固醇尤为敏感[12] [13]。脑内是24-OHC的主要产生部位和储存场所(占体内总24-OHC的80%),其水平与脑内胆固醇含量直接相关[14]。大部分24-OHC在浓度梯度驱动下穿过血脑屏障进入体循环,最终在肝脏降解为胆汁酸,约1%的脑源性24-OHC可进入脑脊液[15]

3. 胆固醇与CSVD的发病机制

胆固醇对CSVD的影响需明确区分两个层面:一是循环系统(外周)的血脂异常,主要通过影响全身血管内皮功能、促进动脉粥样硬化等方式,间接作用于脑小血管;二是中枢神经系统内源性的胆固醇代谢紊乱,直接影响神经细胞(如髓鞘形成、突触功能)和脑内微环境(如血脑屏障完整性、废物清除)。以下将结合CSVD的典型影像学表现,分别阐述这两个层面的作用机制,并特别聚焦于脑内关键胆固醇代谢产物24-S-羟基胆固醇(24-OHC)的核心调节作用。

外周血脂异常(以LDL-C、HDL-C为主):主要通过对血管壁的系统性作用影响CSVD风险。高LDL-C促进全身性动脉粥样硬化,也可能加剧脑小动脉的脂质沉积和硬化;而HDL-C的作用则更为复杂,可能在大血管层面具有保护作用,但在脑微血管层面,其与出血风险的关系存在争议。这种作用往往与传统的血管危险因素(如高血压)协同。

脑内胆固醇代谢紊乱:发生在血脑屏障之内,独立于外周血脂水平。其核心环节包括:星形胶质细胞和神经元的胆固醇合成与转运失衡、髓鞘修复障碍、以及通过代谢产物(如24-OHC)对神经元功能和脑内清洁系统(如胶质淋巴通路)的调节。这种紊乱直接导致神经胶质细胞功能障碍、突触丢失、以及Aβ等毒性蛋白清除效率下降,是CSVD脑实质损伤的更直接驱动因素。

3.1. 与脑白质高信号(WMH)的关联

3.1.1. 外周胆固醇的潜在保护作用

WMH的病理基础为轴突脱髓鞘、胶质增生,常与慢性缺血相关,但CSVD所致WMH的病因复杂,还包括高血压动脉硬化型、淀粉样血管病或遗传性因素(如NOTCH3基因突变导致的CADASIL),并非单纯缺血改变[16]。部分流行病学研究提示,HDL-C/LDL-C比值显著高于中重度患者[17] [18],显示较高的血清总胆固醇或特定的脂质比例可能对WMH具有一定的保护作用。其机制可能涉及血脂对血管完整性的维护,例如通过影响脂肪蛋白脂酶活性来降低血管通透性,减少血管源性脑水肿,从而延缓WMH进展[19]。这体现了外周血脂对脑小血管结构的可能保护效应。

3.1.2. 脑内胆固醇代谢与24-OHC的核心作用

WMH的病理核心是白质髓鞘脱失和少突胶质细胞损伤。脑内胆固醇是髓鞘合成的必需成分。当脑内胆固醇稳态被打破(如合成不足或向少突胶质细胞转运障碍),将直接导致髓鞘修复与维持失败,加速WMH的形成。关键介质24-OHC在此过程中扮演双重角色:首先作为肝脏X受体(LXR)激动剂调节炎症与脂质稳态:24-OHC是脑内最重要的内源性LXR配体。LXR被激活后,可上调ABCA1、ABCG1等相应的转运蛋白的表达,促进细胞内胆固醇流出,这对维持髓鞘形成细胞(少突胶质细胞及其前体细胞)的胆固醇稳态至关重要。同时,LXR激活具有强大的抗炎效应,能抑制小胶质细胞/星形胶质细胞产生促炎因子(如TNF-α,IL-1β),减轻神经炎症,从而保护少突胶质细胞和髓鞘[13] [14]。其次,其影响血脑屏障(BBB)功能:LXR激活还能增强BBB内皮细胞间紧密连接蛋白(如Claudin-5,Occludin)的表达,降低BBB通透性,减少血管源性水肿,这可能是对抗WMH发展的另一重要机制。相反,脑内24-OHC水平异常降低(反映胆固醇代谢障碍)可能导致LXR信号减弱,加剧炎症和BBB破坏,促进WMH。

3.2. 与血管周围间隙扩大(EPVS)的关联

EPVS主要反映脑内间质液循环和废物清除功能障碍(即胶质淋巴系统功能受损) [20]

3.2.1. 外周胆固醇与Aβ病理的间接联系

如前所述,EPVS多与高血压、血脑屏障损伤相关,半卵圆中心EPVS则与脑淀粉样血管病密切相关,两者均涉及β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)的异常蓄积[21] [22]。外周胆固醇升高可能通过促进Aβ生成(增强β/γ-分泌酶活性)间接加剧脑淀粉样血管病(CAA)相关的EPVS,尤其是在半卵圆中心[23]-[27]

3.2.2. 脑内胆固醇代谢、24-OHC与胶质淋巴清除功能

脑内胆固醇代谢紊乱对EPVS的影响更为直接,核心在于损害胶质淋巴通路功能。24-OHC/LXR通路可调节Aβ清除:胶质淋巴系统是清除Aβ等代谢废物的主要途径。研究发现,激活LXR信号可以上调脑内Aβ主要转运蛋白(如载脂蛋白E)的表达,并促进小胶质细胞对Aβ的吞噬,从而增强Aβ的清除[9] [13]。因此,正常的24-OHC水平通过维持LXR活性,保障Aβ的有效清除,防止其在血管周围异常沉积而阻塞EPVS。脑内胆固醇也可通过调节水通道蛋白4 (AQP4)极性影响EPVS:星形胶质细胞血管周围边缘的水通道蛋白4 (AQP4)在胶质淋巴通路功能中起关键作用[28] [29]。胆固醇升高可导致胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)表达增加,促使星形胶质细胞分泌IL-1β、TNF-α等促炎因子,引发AQP4极化丧失。AQP4的表达或分布异常会减弱脑脊液–间质液交换及代谢废物清除能力,进一步加重EPVS的形成与进展[30]

3.3. 与脑微出血(CMB)的关联

CMB是脑小血管损伤导致的微量血液外渗,其病理基础多为脑淀粉样血管病(CAA)或高血压性微血管退行性变,按分布可分为脑叶、深部、幕下及弥散型[31]。CMB的发生与脑血管内皮细胞损伤、血脑屏障破坏密切相关,高龄、高血压、低血脂、高血糖等均为其危险因素,但胆固醇与CMB的关系尚未明确[31]

3.3.1. 脑内机制:淀粉样血管病与血管脆性

CMB的主要病理基础是CAA。脑内胆固醇代谢促进Aβ生成的机制,是CAA发生的重要推手。Aβ在血管壁沉积引发血管壁炎症、变性、坏死,最终导致血管破裂出血。

24-OHC的调节作用:同样,通过上述LXR介导的增强Aβ清除和抗炎机制,正常的24-OHC水平有助于减轻CAA的血管病理负荷,可能对预防CAA相关CMB具有保护作用。反之,24-OHC代谢异常可能加剧Aβ血管病变和炎症,增加CMB风险。

3.3.2. 外周胆固醇的复杂角色

低总胆固醇和低LDL-C水平与脑叶CMB (常提示CAA)风险增加相关,提示其可能削弱血管壁的完整性或修复能力[32]。高HDL-C在微血管层面则可能与血管壁脆性增加有关。

3.4. 与腔隙性脑梗塞(LI)的关联

LI是指腔隙性脑梗死是位于大脑及脑干深部非皮质区的小梗死,是脑小血管病的核心表现之一,与普通脑梗死类似,胆固醇代谢紊乱引起的动脉粥样硬化是腔隙性梗死最常见的原因,胆固醇通过损伤内皮,破坏血脑屏障、氧化应激等导致小穿支动脉堵塞,形成腔隙灶,或大动脉斑块延伸或堵塞穿支小动脉,引起LI,但与普通脑梗死不同的是,LI根据不同大小可能存在不同原因,有研究指出[33],LDL-C与大腔隙性脑梗死灶(8~20 mm)显著正相关,而与小型腔隙性脑梗死灶(≤7 mm)无关,较大的腔隙性病变(8~20 mm),可能归因于微动脉粥样硬化,但较小的病变(≤7 mm),可能归因于脂透明变性。

4. 展望

胆固醇作为经典的血液生化指标,其在动脉粥样硬化及大血管病变中的危害已明确,但对CSVD的作用具有复杂性和异质性。深入探索胆固醇及其代谢产物对CSVD的影响机制,可为CSVD的干预提供新靶点。目前已知胆固醇水平与基因、饮食生活方式、胰岛素抵抗等相关,临床干预措施包括减肥、运动、限酒、饮食控制等生活方式调整,以及他汀类、贝特类、APOC3抑制剂、PCSK9抑制剂、omega-3脂肪酸等降脂药物治疗。

未来研究需进一步明确胆固醇调控CSVD的分子机制,阐明不同胆固醇亚型(如LDL-C、HDL-C)及代谢产物(如24-OHC)在不同类型CSVD中的特异性作用,探索降脂药物对CSVD的精准治疗效果,为实现CSVD的个体化诊断与治疗提供科学依据。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

参考文献

[1] Duering, M., Biessels, G.J., Brodtmann, A., et al. (2023) Neuroimaging Standards for Research into Small Vessel Disease—Advances since 2013. The Lancet Neurology, 22, 602-618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef
[2] 胡文立, 杨磊, 李譞婷, 等. 中国脑小血管病诊治专家共识2021 [J]. 中国卒中杂志, 2021, 16(7): 716-726.
[3] Chiang, S., Chen, S. and Chang, L. (2018) A Dual Role of Heme Oxygenase-1 in Cancer Cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20, Article 39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[4] Amarenco, P., Kim, J.S., Labreuche, J., Charles, H., Abtan, J., Béjot, Y., et al. (2020) A Comparison of Two LDL Cholesterol Targets after Ischemic Stroke. New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 9-19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[5] Gamba, P., Testa, G., Gargiulo, S., Staurenghi, E., Poli, G. and Leonarduzzi, G. (2015) Oxidized Cholesterol as the Driving Force behind the Development of Alzheimer’s Disease. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, Article ID: 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[6] Nieweg, K., Schaller, H. and Pfrieger, F.W. (2009) Marked Differences in Cholesterol Synthesis between Neurons and Glial Cells from Postnatal Rats. Journal of Neurochemistry, 109, 125-134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[7] Li, D., Zhang, J. and Liu, Q. (2022) Brain Cell Type-Specific Cholesterol Metabolism and Implications for Learning and Memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 45, 401-414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[8] Bu, G. (2009) Apolipoprotein E and Its Receptors in Alzheimer’s Disease: Pathways, Pathogenesis and Therapy. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 333-344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[9] de Chaves, E.P., Narayanaswami, V., Christoffersen, C. and Nielsen, L.B. (2008) Apolipoprotein E and Cholesterol in Aging and Disease in the Brain. Future Lipidology, 3, 505-530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[10] William Rebeck, G., Reiter, J.S., Strickland, D.K. and Hyman, B.T. (1993) Apolipoprotein E in Sporadic Alzheimer’s Disease: Allelic Variation and Receptor Interactions. Neuron, 11, 575-580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[11] Gamba, P., Staurenghi, E., Testa, G., Giannelli, S., Sottero, B. and Leonarduzzi, G. (2019) A Crosstalk between Brain Cholesterol Oxidation and Glucose Metabolism in Alzheimer’s Disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, Article ID: 556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[12] Lund, E.G., Xie, C., Kotti, T., Turley, S.D., Dietschy, J.M. and Russell, D.W. (2003) Knockout of the Cholesterol 24-Hydroxylase Gene in Mice Reveals a Brain-Specific Mechanism of Cholesterol Turnover. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 278, 22980-22988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[13] Björkhem, I., Cedazo-Minguez, A., Leoni, V. and Meaney, S. (2009) Oxysterols and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 30, 171-179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[14] Björkhem, I. (2006) Crossing the Barrier: Oxysterols as Cholesterol Transporters and Metabolic Modulators in the Brain. Journal of Internal Medicine, 260, 493-508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[15] Leoni, V. (2009) Oxysterols as Markers of Neurological Disease—A Review. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation, 69, 22-25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[16] Wardlaw, J.M., Smith, C. and Dichgans, M. (2019) Small Vessel Disease: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications. The Lancet Neurology, 18, 684-696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[17] Jimenez-Conde, J., Biffi, A., Rahman, R., Kanakis, A., Butler, C., Sonni, S., et al. (2010) Hyperlipidemia and Reduced White Matter Hyperintensity Volume in Patients with Ischemic Stroke. Stroke, 41, 437-442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[18] Wei, C., Chen, Y., Yu, X., Yang, T., Li, J. and Chen, X. (2023) HDL-C/LDL-C and Risk of Cerebral White Matter Hyperintensities: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of General Medicine, 16, 5175-5182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[19] Sliz, E., Shin, J., Ahmad, S., Williams, D.M., Frenzel, S., Gauß, F., et al. (2022) Circulating Metabolome and White Matter Hyperintensities in Women and Men. Circulation, 145, 1040-1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[20] Wardlaw, J.M., Benveniste, H., Nedergaard, M., Zlokovic, B.V., Mestre, H., Lee, H., et al. (2020) Perivascular Spaces in the Brain: Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. Nature Reviews Neurology, 16, 137-153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[21] Schreiber, S., Bueche, C.Z., Garz, C. and Braun, H. (2013) Blood Brain Barrier Breakdown as the Starting Point of Cerebral Small Vessel Disease?—New Insights from a Rat Model. Experimental & Translational Stroke Medicine, 5, Article No. 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[22] Kang, J., Lemaire, H., Unterbeck, A., Salbaum, J.M., Masters, C.L., Grzeschik, K., et al. (1987) The Precursor of Alzheimer’s Disease Amyloid A4 Protein Resembles a Cell-Surface Receptor. Nature, 325, 733-736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[23] Kojro, E., Gimpl, G., Lammich, S., März, W. and Fahrenholz, F. (2001) Low Cholesterol Stimulates the Nonamyloidogenic Pathway by Its Effect on the Α-Secretase ADAM 10. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 5815-5820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[24] Seubert, P., Oltersdorf, T., Lee, M.G., Barbour, R., Blomquist, C., Davis, D.L., et al. (1993) Secretion of β-Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaved at the Amino Terminus of the Β-Amyloid Peptide. Nature, 361, 260-263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[25] Xiong, H., Callaghan, D., Jones, A., Walker, D.G., Lue, L., Beach, T.G., et al. (2008) Cholesterol Retention in Alzheimer’s Brain Is Responsible for High β-and γ-Secretase Activities and Aβ Production. Neurobiology of Disease, 29, 422-437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[26] Vetrivel, K.S. and Thinakaran, G. (2010) Membrane Rafts in Alzheimer’s Disease Beta-Amyloid Production. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1801, 860-867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[27] Barrett, P.J., Song, Y., Van Horn, W.D., Hustedt, E.J., Schafer, J.M., Hadziselimovic, A., et al. (2012) The Amyloid Precursor Protein Has a Flexible Transmembrane Domain and Binds Cholesterol. Science, 336, 1168-1171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[28] Iliff, J.J., Wang, M., Liao, Y., Plogg, B.A., Peng, W., Gundersen, G.A., et al. (2012) A Paravascular Pathway Facilitates CSF Flow through the Brain Parenchyma and the Clearance of Interstitial Solutes, Including Amyloid Β. Science Translational Medicine, 4, 147ra111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[29] Iliff, J.J., Chen, M.J., Plog, B.A., Zeppenfeld, D.M., Soltero, M., Yang, L., et al. (2014) Impairment of Glymphatic Pathway Function Promotes Tau Pathology after Traumatic Brain Injury. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 16180-16193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[30] Liu, H., Meng, L., Wang, J., Qin, C., Feng, R., Chen, Y., et al. (2024) Enlarged Perivascular Spaces in Alcohol-Related Brain Damage Induced by Dyslipidemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 44, 1867-1880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[31] 张良, 谭洋, 韩芳, 等. SWI脑微出血症临床相关研究进展[J]. 医学影像学杂志, 2023, 33(4): 641-644.
[32] Orken, D.N., Kenangil, G., Uysal, E., Gundogdu, L., Erginoz, E. and Forta, H. (2010) Lack of Association between Cerebral Microbleeds and Low Serum Cholesterol in Patients with Acute Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 112, 668-671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[33] Bezerra, D.C., Sharrett, A.R., Matsushita, K., Gottesman, R.F., Shibata, D., Mosley, T.H., et al. (2012) Risk Factors for Lacune Subtypes in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Neurology, 78, 102-108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]