脑出血后非神经元细胞特异性死亡途径及其对血脑屏障与白质结构的影响
Non-Neuronal Cell-Specific Death Pathways after Intracerebral Hemorrhage and Their Impact on the Blood-Brain Barrier and White Matter Structure
摘要: 脑出血(Intracerebral Hemorrhage, ICH)属于致死致残率颇高的脑血管疾病类别,其继发性损伤机制较为复杂,截至目前尚无有效的治疗方法。传统研究大多将目光集中在神经元损伤方面,但是近些年有证据显示,非神经元的支持细胞的凋亡在血脑屏障(Blood-Brain Barrier, BBB)的破坏以及白质(White Matter, WM)的损伤进程中起关键作用。本综述全面阐述脑出血后的脑微血管内皮细胞(Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells, BMECs)、周细胞、星形胶质细胞以及少突胶质细胞这类非神经元细胞出现特异性程序性死亡的分子机制,重点突出铁过载和脂质过氧化所驱动的铁死亡在其中担当的关键枢纽角色。这些细胞的死亡并非单独发生的情形,而是借助炎症因子、趋化因子(比如CXCL10,LCN2相关的)等介质构建起复杂的多细胞相互作用网络,进而致使死亡信号得以放大并传播,从而共同使得神经血管单元(Neurovascular Unit, NVU)的崩溃状况更为严重。文章进一步探究针对此类细胞死亡通路的潜在治疗策略,比如抑制铁死亡、调节水通道蛋白AQP4的极性、增强IL-10信号。最后,指出当下研究在细胞特异性解析以及时空动态观测领域存在的技术短板,并对未来通过融合多组学技术、纳米药物递送以及多靶点联合治疗等方式促使脑出血治疗策略从“以神经元为中心”向“对神经血管单元进行整体保护”的范式转变进行展望,进而为实现精准医疗提供新的视角。
Abstract: Intracerebral hemorrhage is one of the cerebrovascular diseases with the highest rates of mortality and disability, and its secondary injury mechanisms are complex, with effective therapies currently lacking. Traditional research has primarily focused on neuronal damage; however, recent evidence indicates that the death of non-neuronal support cells plays a central role in blood-brain barrier disruption and white matter injury. This review systematically elucidates the molecular mechanisms of specific programmed cell death in non-neuronal cells—such as brain microvascular endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes—following intracerebral hemorrhage, with particular emphasis on the critical role of ferroptosis driven by iron overload and lipid peroxidation. The death of these cells is not an isolated event but forms a complex multicellular interaction network through mediators such as inflammatory factors and chemokines (e.g., CXCL10, LCN2), leading to the amplification and propagation of death signals and collectively exacerbating the collapse of the neurovascular unit. The article further explores potential therapeutic strategies targeting these cell death pathways, including inhibiting ferroptosis, regulating the polarity of aquaporin-4 (AQP4), and enhancing IL-10 signaling. Finally, it highlights the current technical limitations in cell-specific analysis and spatiotemporal observation, and prospects future paradigm shifts in ICH treatment strategies from “neuron-centric” approaches to “comprehensive neurovascular unit protection” through the integration of multi-omics technologies, nanodrug delivery, and multi-target combination therapies, thereby providing novel perspectives for precision medicine.
文章引用:郭汉龙, 黄泽村, 叶欣浩, 张加劲, 罗穆云. 脑出血后非神经元细胞特异性死亡途径及其对血脑屏障与白质结构的影响[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(2): 2850-2863. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.162697

1. 引言

脑出血(Intracerebral Hemorrhage, ICH)是最具破坏性的脑血管事件之一,具有极高的死亡率和致残率,其公共卫生负担在全球范围内持续上升。根据2019年全球疾病负担研究,ICH占所有新发中风的约28%,年发病率约为每10万人42例,在大洋洲和东南亚的部分国家发病率更为突出[1] [2]。受限于缺乏有效的病因学干预手段,ICH目前仍以支持性治疗为主,其复杂的病理过程是改进临床预后的一大挑战。

从病理学层面来讲,由ICH引发的脑损伤主要包含原发性与继发性这两个阶段。原发性损伤发生于出血后的数分钟到数小时内,是指由突发性血肿形成以及其占位效应所导致的脑实质直接被压迫和被破坏[3]。其后持续发展的继发性损伤,是与患者长期功能恢复密切相关的,主要涉及炎症反应、氧化应激、铁稳态紊乱、血脑屏障破坏以及血肿周围水肿等一系列复杂的分子和细胞事件[4]-[6]。因此,阻断继发性损伤进程的事件被视为改善临床转归的关键突破口。

值得留意的是,伴随研究持续推进,人们逐渐意识到ICH后脑部组织受到损害不单单涉及到神经元发生死亡(包含凋亡、坏死、铁死亡等多种形式),并且还伴有一系列非神经元细胞的功能出现障碍以及死亡的状况。血脑屏障(Blood-Brain Barrier, BBB)的完整性维系是靠脑内皮细胞(Brain Endothelial Cells, BEC)、周细胞、星形胶质细胞、基底膜以及细胞连接这些方面的协同作用[7] [8]。在脑出血微环境中,内皮细胞紧密连接蛋白表达下调,周细胞和内皮细胞发生分离,导致BBB结构变得松散,造成血管通透性提高及水肿加重。周细胞对于凝血酶是非常敏感的,并且其可以产生基质金属蛋白酶-9 (MMP-9) [9],在ICH所导致的血管损伤中起到关键调控作用。

此外,在中枢神经系统之中,由少突胶质细胞维持的髓鞘稳态在ICH后同样遭受到了严重的破坏[10]。已有证据显示,ICH会导致明显的OL死亡以及白质脱髓鞘,进而使得神经网络传导效率降低[11]。小胶质细胞乃是脑内最早针对ICH进行响应的免疫细胞,在炎症的扩散以及组织修复的过程当中都具有双重的作用[12]。尽管这些非神经元细胞在继发性损伤中的作用日益受到关注,但其具体机制尚未完全阐明。

当前研究在很大程度上仍然较多地侧重于神经元损伤,而对于非神经元细胞在血脑屏障破坏、水肿形成、白质退行性变及认知功能障碍中的贡献之处还存在明显的认知不足情况。本综述旨在系统总结相关研究进展,并探讨基于细胞类型的潜在精准干预策略,希望能够为未来的临床转化提供新的方向以及理论支撑。

2. ICH后的受控细胞死亡概念与非神经元的特殊性

在ICH这样一种复杂的病理发展过程当中,受控的细胞死亡已经变成了继发性脑损伤的一个关键机制[13]。与失控性坏死不同,受控细胞死亡指的是细胞在遭遇不可逆损伤时,主动开启并去执行的一系列由信号通路来介导的程序性死亡方式。目前已知的主要类型包含凋亡、焦亡、铁死亡以及自噬依赖性细胞死亡等[14]。这些死亡模式由相互关联的分子机制来启动并实施,共同构成了在ICH后神经血管单元损伤的网络根基所在。

在分子机制层面上,不同受控细胞的死亡各具特点。细胞凋亡是维持稳态的关键进程,能够通过外源性(如由TNFR1、Fas、DR4/5这类死亡受体来进行介导,激活Caspase-8)或者内源性的途径(由线粒体途径来进行介导,受到Bcl-2家族的调控)来触发最后的执行环节[14]。焦亡是一种高度促炎的程序性细胞死亡,由Gasdermin蛋白家族(如GSDMD)执行,从而引发细胞膜孔道的形成以及大量炎症因子(如IL-1β、IL-18)的释放。程序性坏死主要是借助RIPK1激酶的活性来推动,进而形成坏死小体复合物,使得细胞膜出现破裂状况[14]。铁死亡是近年来备受关注的新型氧化性细胞程序性死亡,其核心特点是依赖铁离子的脂质过氧化物毒性蓄积,关键的机制包含胱氨酸/谷氨酸逆向转运体(System Xc)功能受到抑制从而使得谷胱甘肽合成减少,及其下游关键抗氧化酶——谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4出现失活,二者共同导致脂质修复能力衰竭[15]。自噬在这个过程之中起到复杂的作用:一方面,它通过溶酶体介导的异常蛋白与细胞器降解,发挥细胞保护功能,该过程受ULK1、Beclin-1、LC3等基因的精准调控;另一方面,过度激活或失调的自噬可导致细胞死亡[16] [17]

在ICH的背景状况之下,多种程序性细胞死亡模式对于非神经元细胞展开的靶向性攻击尤为显著,成为血脑屏障破坏,白质损伤以及神经炎症形成恶性循环的关键环节。首先,BBB的完整性在很大程度上是依靠内皮细胞以及周细胞。在ICH后,红细胞破裂释放出来的血红蛋白/血红素会让这些血管细胞内的Fe2+出现过载,从而直接引起内皮细胞和周细胞的铁死亡[18]。同时,促炎微环境亦可激活内皮细胞的焦亡以及凋亡现象。这些RCD事件致使内皮紧密连接蛋白出现降解[19]、星形胶质细胞终足处水通道蛋白AQP4表达出现紊乱状况,进而使得作为BBB“外骨骼”的星形胶质细胞覆盖层被破坏,最终共同造成血管通透性急剧上升——这是血管源性脑水肿发生以及恶化的关键原因所在[20]。此外,研究表明,保护内皮紧密连接蛋白可显著改善神经功能[21]

其次,少突胶质细胞谱系是另一个易损靶点。少突胶质细胞以及它的髓鞘对于维持白质功能和构造至关重要[22]。ICH后,大量活性氧积聚起来,然后直接对髓鞘以及少突胶质前体细胞产生损伤[23]。值得注意的是,少突胶质前体细胞(Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells, OPCs)对于铁死亡是极其敏感的。细胞内铁过载还有GPX4活性降低所引起的压倒性氧化应激,使得脂质过氧化物堆积,进而促使OPCs出现铁死亡,这被看作是啮齿动物ICH模型中OPCs大量丢失的关键因素[24] [25]。在实验模型之中,对于OPCs的铁死亡进行抑制,能够明显地促使轴突的再髓鞘化,并且还能改善神经功能恢复的状况[24]。这凸显了靶向非神经元细胞(尤其是血管细胞和少突胶质细胞)的程序性细胞死亡,特别是铁死亡,在减轻ICH后白质损伤以及神经功能缺损这一方面具备重要的治疗潜力。

3. 脑内皮细胞死亡与血脑屏障破坏

BBB是中枢神经系统当中一种高度特化的生理结构,它的关键功能就是严格调控血液与脑实质间的物质转运,从而来维持脑内环境的稳定。从解剖学层面来看,BBB主要是由BMECs所构成,这些脑微血管内皮细胞借助紧密连接(TJs)来达成自身的融合,并且和星形胶质细胞、周细胞以及血管周围小胶质细胞等成分相互产生作用,从而构成一个完整的屏障体系[26]。BMECs与其他器官的内皮细胞不同[27] [28],具有无开窗结构、胞饮囊泡水平低以及紧密连接(TJs)高表达等特征,这些特性共同限制了溶质和水的被动渗透,从而保障了BBB的选择性通透性。此外,BMECs还会表达特定的载体以及受体,借助这样的方式来对离子、小分子还有大分子的转运进行调节,这属于BBB内皮细胞的标志性特征[26] [29]。在TJs当中,Claudins (克劳丁蛋白)、Occludin (闭合蛋白)以及连接粘附分子(JAMs)这类多种膜蛋白组成了主要的封闭链,其中Claudin-5 (CLDN5,克劳丁蛋白5)在BMECs里高表达,参与构成紧密连接链的骨架,并且直接对BBB的通透性进行调节[30]-[32]。早期研究表明,在斑马鱼模型中,Cldn5a是神经上皮屏障发育所必需的[33],且CLDN5从细胞膜向胞质重新分布可提高BBB通透性[34],突出了TJ蛋白动态变化在屏障功能上的关键作用。紧密连接(TJs)和粘附连接(AJs)共同维持BBB的完整性以及内皮功能:TJs主要对离子和溶质的细胞旁运动进行调控,而AJs则通过细胞间的粘附来提供结构稳定性[35]。这些连接由跨膜蛋白及胞质支架蛋白(如闭合带-1 (ZO-1)、闭合带-2 (ZO-2)、闭合带-3 (ZO-3)、扣球素和长口针)来进行锚定,并通过肌动蛋白细胞骨架连接,以提供结构支撑、推动信号传导,从而保证BBB的选择性通透[31] [32]

BBB紊乱常见于多种神经系统疾病,如神经元功能障碍、神经炎症、神经变性及物质使用障碍等[36] [37]。例如,在朊病毒感染的小鼠模型中,BBB的损伤往往会比临床症状更早地出现,其特征为VE-钙粘蛋白表达降低,造成内皮细胞凝聚力的破坏。同时,感染期间被激活的反应性星形胶质细胞会释放出大量促炎细胞因子(如IL-6),进而破坏内皮细胞连接的完整性[35]。在体外BBB模型当中,氧–葡萄糖剥夺/再灌注(OGD/R)被用来模拟缺血/再灌注(I/R)损伤,结果显示在复氧之后的12小时,BMECs内紧密连接蛋白ZO-1和Occludin的表达水平明显降低;免疫荧光检测还表明ZO-1处于不连续分布的状态,说明紧密连接(TJs)功能出现受损[38]。近些年越来越多的证据表明,BMECs铁死亡是I/R导致BBB损伤的主要原因[39] [40]。铁死亡是由细胞内铁过载及脂质过氧化蓄积引发的程序性细胞死亡,伴随活性氧(ROS)产生及细胞死亡[41]。经OGD/R处理之后,BMECs表现出线粒体肿胀、嵴减少或者消失的情况,与此同时,抗氧化分子谷胱甘肽(GSH)还有谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4 (GPX4)水平降低,而脂质过氧化物丙二醛(MDA)和ROS的水平升高,意味着细胞内脂质过氧化水平提升。另外,铁死亡的生物标志物环氧合酶-2 (COX-2)在OGD/R这一组中的表达明显提升,更进一步地证实了铁死亡的参与情况[38]。转染LCN2以及HMGB1的siRNA可以对内皮细胞的铁死亡达成抑制效果,而Nrf2的siRNA会让这种保护效应产生反转[42],表明Nrf2信号通路在调控铁死亡方面具有重要的意义。另有研究表明,p23可能通过增强GPX4稳定性抑制BMECs铁死亡,从而对于脑I/R所引发的BBB损伤起到保护作用[38]

除了铁死亡这类细胞死亡途径之外,焦亡等细胞死亡途径也参与到BBB的破坏之中。焦亡是炎症性细胞死亡的其中一种类型,由NOD样受体家族pyrin结构域蛋白3 (NLRP3)介导。NLRP3会形成炎性小体复合物并且激活Caspase-1,从而促进IL-1β和IL-18释放[43]。Sphk1/S1P通路通过诱导Nlrp3所介导的内皮细胞焦亡,促使ICH后BBB破坏[44],而且NLRP3炎性小体的激活会使得Caspase-1以及基质金属蛋白酶-9 (MMP-9)所介导的紧密连接蛋白产生紊乱[45]。在治疗层面上,铁死亡抑制剂Fer-1可以明显地限制LCN2所引导的BBB破坏,而像URB597及穿心莲内酯这一类的药物,则通过激活Nrf2信号通路,来减少氧化应激和炎症,从而改善OGD/R条件下BMECs的通透性以及细胞凋亡的状况[42] [46]。此外,芦丁可使海马HDAC1-Claudin-5轴恢复到正常状态,阻止循环TNF-α浸润到脑实质,并且还能减轻神经炎症[47],体现出了靶向TJ蛋白治疗的潜在价值。

4. 周细胞——多功能的微血管守护者

ICH后所形成的血肿在几个小时到几天之内会释放出大量的红细胞,其中血红蛋白(Hb)以及它的降解产物血红素就会慢慢地渗透到周围的脑组织之中[48]。血红素在血红素加氧酶HO-1/HO-2的作用之下会被分解成为一氧化碳、胆绿素及铁[48],其中释放出来的铁借助芬顿反应来促使活性氧(ROS)产生,进而加快细胞脂质过氧化[49] [50],成为继发性脑损伤的关键诱发因素。细胞内外铁蓄积可直接损伤脑微血管系统,尤其是BBB关键结构,使得血管通透性升高并且引发脑水肿[18]。实验证据表明,Hb或者血红素可直接诱导脑内皮细胞还有周细胞之中的Fe²⁺聚集,进而引发严重的细胞损伤,而铁螯合剂能够有效地减轻这类损害[18],表明铁毒性是ICH后微血管破坏的核心机制之一。周细胞及内皮细胞是BBB的主要构成成分,二者与星形胶质细胞、小胶质细胞还有神经元一起构成紧密的细胞间信号网络,以维系脑血管的稳定性[51] [52]。出血环境中,内皮细胞紧密连接蛋白会出现减少情况,周细胞和内皮膜发生分离,快速破坏BBB的结构完整性[53]-[55],导致血液成分渗漏加剧、微血管壁脆性增加及水肿恶化[56]-[58]。过往的研究表明,对周细胞和内皮细胞的活性进行保护能够明显地改善ICH以及出血转化之后的不良神经学预后情况[54] [55],更加突出了微血管健康在脑出血预后这一方面的重要性。

周细胞不仅能维持BBB的稳定性,还参与到血流的调节、血管的生成、炎症反应的调控以及神经血管单元当中的信号整合[59]。在脑和视网膜的微血管之中,周细胞可以调节毛细血管的直径进而去影响局部血流的分布情况,还能够根据能量需求来对红细胞在微循环当中的分配予以调控,进而改变组织氧摄取率(OEF)以此来适应代谢方面的需求[60] [61]。在炎症这样的状况之下,靠近小静脉的周细胞会增多趋化因子以及黏附分子的表达情况,进而促使白细胞跨过BBB进行迁移,让全身免疫反应可以在脑中得到放大[62]。但与此同时,周细胞还可以产生如IL-10、IL-13这类的抗炎因子,减轻内皮细胞所受到的损伤,表现出它在炎症调控方面具有双重的作用[63]。周细胞数目减少或者功能出现障碍,可致内皮转胞吞作用异常增强、分子转运蛋白表达紊乱以及黏附分子表达失衡,从而进一步削弱BBB的屏障功能[64]。研究表明众多中枢神经系统方面的病症,例如糖尿病视网膜病变、中风、阿尔茨海默病、肌萎缩侧索硬化症及衰老相关病理等,均与周细胞的丢失存在紧密关联[64]。在成年动物模型当中对周细胞进行消融操作,能使活动能力降低并且出现明显的反应性胶质增生情况[65],显示出周细胞在维持脑组织稳态这一方面具有关键的作用。

BBB损伤不仅对于微血管功能方面产生影响,而且还会造成白质结构出现被破坏的情况[66]。白质的完整性对于神经元之间快速的信号传递以及认知功能的维持是非常关键的,而微血管灌注出现不足以及周细胞发生死亡会导致白质病变,进而使得认知能力的减退情况加重[67] [68]。周细胞功能障碍已被证实会促使慢性脑灌注不足所引发的血管性认知障碍的出现[69],意味微血管损伤和认知方面的衰退之间存在一种关键的病理上的关联。

在细胞死亡通路的范围以内,受体相互作用蛋白激酶-1 (RIPK1)属于调控细胞死亡与炎症的关键因子,会通过MLKL来介导程序性坏死[70]。在ICH后的12~24小时内,同侧脑半球的神经元、内皮细胞和周细胞的RIPK1蛋白均明显升高,并导致BBB通透性增加[70]。RIPK1激酶若失去活性或者MLKL出现缺失,就会很明显地让BBB损伤降低,这说明该通路在ICH继发性损伤当中起到重要的作用。尽管在全细胞裂解物当中MLKL的磷酸化主要出现在神经元以及星形胶质细胞之中,但总MLKL的表达在多个细胞类型中都存在区域性的差异情况,提示不同细胞对ICH的敏感性各异[70]。需要强调的是,在没有受伤的脑区当中,不存在RIPK1或者pMLKL升高的情况,意味着这些变化全部都是由ICH自身所诱导引发的[70]

5. 星形胶质细胞在神经血管单元中的核心作用

ICH后出现的延迟性脑水肿是导致患者神经功能出现恶化而且临床结局不好的关键因素,它的核心病理生理环节为BBB的通透性出现很明显的增高情况[70] [71]。BBB的结构以及功能的完整性在很大程度上是依靠NVU当中各个组成部分的精细协作来实现的,并且星形胶质细胞在其中起核心关键的作用。星形胶质细胞的末端足对超90%的脑微血管表面进行包裹,形成了胶质–血管界面,不仅给内皮细胞提供结构性的支撑,还主动参与调控脑血流量、维持氧化平衡以及BBB选择性通透[72] [73]。在ICH后,反应性星形胶质细胞增生呈现复杂的双重特性:一方面有可能借助保护机制去促使进行修复;另一方面或许通过释放有害的因子来让损伤变得更严重[74]

水通道蛋白4 (AQP4)特异地富集在星形胶质细胞的末端足膜上,朝向血管基底膜[75],在脑水肿形成过程中发挥“双刃剑”的作用[20]。作为高效的水通道,AQP4能够介导水分子跨细胞膜进行双向的流动,这对于脑组织水平衡起到至关重要的作用[76] [77]。研究指出,ICH后,所产生的过多ROS会明显地让星形胶质细胞上的AQP4表达数量降低。由于星形胶质细胞覆盖层是维持BBB整体完整性的“外骨骼”,AQP4表达降低会直接让BBB的微观构造(包括周细胞、基底膜以及星形胶质细胞覆盖自身)遭到破坏,进而造成血管渗漏,促使血肿周围水肿在ICH早期快速发展。值得注意的是,运用ROS清除剂或者AQP4增强剂来进行治疗,均可使得AQP4表达恢复并且让BBB完整性得到改进,这也显示出靶向AQP4是一种潜在的治疗策略[20]。进一步的研究再一次证实,抑制EPAC1可以借助纠正AQP4在星形胶质细胞上的极性分布来让脑水肿得到改善[78],并且甘氨酸–组氨酸–赖氨酸(GHK)能够通过激活Akt/miR-146a-3p信号通路正向地去调控AQP4,让ICH对星形胶质细胞的损伤减轻[79]

星形胶质细胞不仅是脑内水平衡的调控者,更是突触功能的关键调节者。其终足包裹突触,能对神经元释放的谷氨酸等递质产生应答[80]。在生理状态下,星形胶质细胞主要通过IP3R2介导的Gq-GPCR通路引发胞内钙信号,以此介导快速的神经血管耦合:神经元活动释放谷氨酸,激活星形胶质细胞上的代谢性谷氨酸受体,引发钙离子升高,进而促使其终足释放血管活性物质,最终精确调节局部脑血流量[81]。然而,在脑出血等病理状态下,星形胶质细胞的钙信号发生紊乱,例如IP3R2依赖的钙库释放导致胞内钙持续异常升高,使其功能受损[82]。这种损伤尤其表现为清除突触间隙谷氨酸的能力显著下降,造成谷氨酸过度累积。谷氨酸的持续存在会过度激活神经元上的NMDA受体,引发致命的钙离子超载和兴奋性毒性,这是导致继发性神经元损伤与神经功能障碍的核心机制。

另外,反应性星形胶质细胞被强烈激活,成为神经炎症的关键放大器。其大量释放肿瘤坏死因子-α (TNF-α)、白介素-6 (IL-6)等炎性细胞因子[83],并表达趋化因子(如CXCL10)。星形胶质细胞所产生的CXCL10会跟内皮细胞、神经元等表面的CXCR3受体相结合,这样的相互作用不仅会使得突触传递效率变快,造成大脑过度兴奋[84],而且还能够引起血管内皮细胞出现凋亡现象,从而使得血管通透性进一步得到提高[85]。临床方面的数据提示,ICH这类患者脑脊液之中CXCL10水平的升高与不良预后有紧密的关联[86]。同时,星形胶质细胞的功能出现异常,会让谷氨酸的摄取能力降低,这与NF-κB/GLT1信号通路受损有关,导致突触间隙谷氨酸积聚,引发兴奋性毒性,最后造成神经元死亡[74]。经证实,对NDRG2进行抑制,能够通过星形胶质细胞所导致的谷氨酸神经毒性延缓,来减轻在ICH后的脑损伤情况[87]

在ICH发生之后,星形胶质细胞的生存状况也遭受到了威胁。实验模型显示,血肿周围的区域出现星形胶质细胞凋亡的状况,而且这种缺失可能比明显的血管损伤出现得还要更早[88]。局部部位的星形胶质细胞若出现了缺失的情况,则会消除对微血管的关键保护作用,从而进一步加剧BBB功能障碍的情况[89]。研究表明,在ICH发生之后,自噬通路会被明显激活,其中分子伴侣介导的自噬关键蛋白Lamp2a在星形胶质细胞当中出现了上调的状况。而将Lamp2a进行下调就会使得有害的A1型反应性星形胶质细胞出现增多的情况,与此同时还伴随髓鞘损伤的加剧以及神经功能缺损的恶化,意味着对星形胶质细胞自噬进行调节或许会对其表型和功能产生作用[90]。因此,对于星形胶质细胞的保护策略,如运用Met-R进行治疗以此去调控CCR1/CCL5轴,或者诱导血红素加氧酶-1的表达,都已经被证实能够减轻脑水肿、维持血脑屏障的完整性以及改善神经行为学方面的结果[91]

6. 少突胶质细胞与髓鞘的脆弱性:铁死亡催动的白质损伤

ICH后的神经功能缺损状况,不只是因为灰质神经元遭受到直接的损伤,还和WM受到损害密切关联。白质包含大量被髓鞘包裹住的轴突,大概约占人类大脑体积的一半,其作用就是连接不同脑区来达成高效的信息传递[92]。因此,WM完整性缺失成为致使ICH患者长期存在运动、感觉还有高级认知功能障碍的关键因素[93]。白质结构的核心功能单元就是少突胶质细胞,它们担负形成并且维系轴突周边髓鞘的职责,目的是保证神经冲动可以快速地进行传导[92]。OPCs属于成年中枢神经系统当中持续存在的祖细胞,是髓鞘再生(再髓鞘化)的主要细胞来源情况。所以在ICH后去保护成熟的少突胶质细胞以及OPCs不受到细胞凋亡的影响,并且促使它们进行分化以及髓鞘修复,对于改善长期的预后非常关键[94]

近年来有研究显示,在ICH后所出现的白质损伤和一种新型的程序性细胞死亡的类型——铁死亡(Ferroptosis)——存在紧密的关联情况[15] [24]。铁死亡具有细胞内铁离子出现过载的特性,脂质代谢出现重编程以及谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4 (GPx4)活性被抑制,从而使得脂质过氧化物(特别是脂质ROS)大量的积聚,最后导致细胞膜破裂然后走向死亡[24] [25]。在ICH模型当中,特别是侧脑室出血(IVH)以及小鼠的ICH模型,进行研究之后发现OPCs属于铁死亡的易感性细胞[15]。出血之后所释放出来的血红素等产物使得OPCs中的铁离子出现积聚,同时GPx4的表达降低,从而引发严重的脂质过氧化情况以及OPCs的铁死亡现象[24]。体外的实验情况表明,使用血红素(Hemin)模拟出血的环境,能够成功地诱导OPCs出现铁死亡,特征表现为脂质ROS明显升高;而采用铁死亡特异性的抑制剂(如Ferrostatin-1)则可以有效地降低OPC的死亡比率[24]

铁死亡不仅直接让OPCs出现损耗情况,而且还通过破坏再髓鞘化的能力来加重白质受到的损伤。髓鞘的完好程度乃是白质功能的基础所在,髓鞘要是出现损伤就会使得轴突信号传导出现障碍,甚至还会让轴突发生变性情况,在临床表现上则呈现出在感觉、运动以及认知功能这几方面的障碍状况。在ICH后的慢性阶段当中,使OPCs存活并且分化成为成熟的少突胶质细胞,进而实现再髓鞘化,这是功能恢复的关键环节之一。研究表明,抗炎细胞因子IL-10在这个过程当中起到了关键的保护作用,其通过激活下游的IL-10/STAT3信号通路,对DLK-1/ACC轴进行调控,缓解了OPCs当中血红素所引发的脂质ROS积累,进而抑制了铁死亡[23]

除了铁死亡之外,ICH后的继发反应,例如小胶质细胞活化、炎症细胞浸润及促炎细胞因子(如TNF-α)的释放,同样也会加重白质损伤的复杂微环境。有研究发现小胶质细胞之中的铁死亡会更进一步地放大神经炎症,例如通过释放TNF-α这类途径来间接调控少突胶质细胞的死亡情况。因此,对小胶质细胞的铁死亡加以抑制(如使用铁死亡抑制剂铁抑素-1),可以让炎症反应得到减轻,从而给少突胶质细胞谱系起到间接的保护作用[95]。另一方面,促使OPCs向成熟的少突细胞分化的内在机制也备受人们关注,例如,自分泌(多效蛋白)这一类多效因子的信号能够推动少突胶质细胞的分化以及髓鞘的修复情况[96]。金属蛋白酶组织抑制因子-3 (TIMP-3)已经被证实可以借助推动OPCs成熟的方式来减轻蛛网膜下腔出血之后的白质损伤情况[97]。另外,发现转录因子MAZ能够同时对OPCs的铁死亡、凋亡还有分化过程进行调控,表明它可能是一个有多效性的治疗靶点[11]。对于炎症介质而言,研究表明在慢性ICH小鼠模型当中,脂质运载蛋白-2 (Lcn2)的抑制剂ZINC-94/89能够明显地对行为表现进行改善,对炎症起到减轻作用并且促使髓鞘恢复,凸显出调控神经炎症对于白质保护的重要性[98]

7. 多细胞互作、信号放大与死亡传播

在脑损伤以及神经退行性病变当中,不同种类的细胞通过复杂的信号网络相互作用,其中炎症信号的级联放大以及程序性死亡方式的跨细胞传播,是导致病情持续恶化的关键病理机制。这一连锁反应通常由特定的病理产物启动。例如在阿尔茨海默病(AD)的模型当中,Aβ42可以激活星形胶质细胞中依赖GSDMD、GSDME、Caspase-11以及NLRP3炎症小体等多条分子途径的焦亡进程[99]。出现焦亡情况的星形胶质细胞会释放数量众多的TNF-α、IL-1α、IL-1β以及IL-18等促炎因子,之后去攻击BMECs,使得BMECs的功能出现问题并且释放内皮素(ET)和血管性血友病因子(vWF)等血管收缩剂,最后在APP/PS1小鼠当中让脑组织和血管的损伤情况变得更加严重[99]。值得去关注的是,血管功能的早期损伤也许对于疾病进程起到一种推动的作用:在AD小鼠的模型以及患者的大脑之中,都可以观察到周细胞出现退化以及从而引起的BBB功能出现障碍的情况,促使Aβ积聚以及tau蛋白磷酸化(p-τ),然后形成一个恶性循环[100] [101]。在实验性慢性脑低灌注(CCH)的小鼠模型中,胼胝体区域周细胞覆盖减少导致BBB通透性升高,这一病理变化主要是通过调控TGF-β/Smad2信号通路引发脑损伤[102] [103]

同样地,在ICH这类急性损伤的情况下,红细胞破裂之后释放出来的血红蛋白(Hb)以及它的降解产物血红素(Hemin)属于关键的初始损伤信号。其致使细胞内Fe2+出现积聚,然后分别引发内皮细胞以及周细胞遭受损害[18]。体外的实验表明,Hemin能够直接让内皮的屏障功能产生障碍并且破坏连接的完整情况;在体内的ICH小鼠模型当中,Hemin也同样诱发了BBB的高通透性[18]

急性的损伤,如中风后,小胶质细胞作为免疫先锋快速地朝病灶区域聚集,而且还极化为促炎的M1表型[104]。在多种不同的刺激作用下,这些小胶质细胞会发生焦亡并释放出大量促炎因子,进而通过旁分泌作用诱导周边星形胶质细胞和神经元发生焦亡(其特征包含膜的通透性出现改变,细胞有水肿情况甚至破裂),形成一种炎症星号和细胞死亡的级联放大效应。作为BBB结构当中核心的BMECs,当遭受到来自小胶质细胞以及星形胶质细胞炎性因子的冲击时,它自身的焦亡通路就会被启动激活,直接破坏BBB的完整性,从而引发更严重的继发性脑损伤。研究还发现,星形胶质细胞所制造产生的趋化因子CXCL10,在共培养的体系中能够通过强化cGAS/STING信号通路,加剧内皮细胞的焦亡[105]

在这个复杂的互作网络当中,星形胶质细胞所分泌出来的脂质运载蛋白-2 (LCN2)担当重要的信使以及放大器角色。LCN2属于一种急性期蛋白,在ICH、蛛网膜下腔出血这类损伤出现之后,它的表达就会明显地出现上调。研究显示,对星形胶质细胞特异性敲除LCN2可减轻缺血性损伤后的少突胶质细胞丢失、脱髓鞘病变及认知功能缺陷,并且这种效应会被LCN2的再进行表达所逆转[106]。其保护机制可能与LCN2被抑制之后通过增强铁蛋白轻链表达,从而减轻小胶质细胞铁死亡相关[107]。此外髓鞘的健康形成以及修复在很大程度上依靠周细胞和OPCs之间的相互作用,研究表明NG2 (一种常常被用来标记OPCs以及周细胞亚群的蛋白)的参与对于促进髓鞘再生以及恢复BBB功能是非常重要的[108] [109]

从神经元毒性蛋白(如Aβ)及血液降解产物(例如Hb/Hemin)的初始侵袭,到小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞、内皮细胞、周细胞及少突胶质细胞通过炎症因子、趋化因子(如CXCL10、LCN2)介导的复杂细胞间相互作用,最后导致焦亡、铁死亡等程序性死亡方式在不同细胞中间扩散,并通过TGF-β/Smad2等信号通路来放大损伤,共同破坏NVU的完整性。然后,由于细胞方面特异性标记物的缺少及体内时空动态解析技术的局限性,精准解析这些事件发生的先后顺序以及细胞间双向信号的准确轨迹仍然是当前面临的主要挑战。未来研究需开发更加精准的谱系追踪以及实时成像等技术,以此来全面地阐释这一复杂的多细胞相互作用网络,进而为研发有针对性的干预策略开辟新的途径。

8. 总结与临床展望

对ICH后非神经元细胞死亡机制的深入认知,不仅重新定义了疾病病理进程,更推动治疗策略实现范式转变:从以往的“神经元中心”,转变成为“对神经血管单元进行整体保护”。尽管在ICH后非神经元细胞死亡的认识上已经取得了较为明显的进展,但将其转化为临床获益仍面临挑战。未来的研究应聚焦以下关键方向:首先,当前研究面临的主要限制包括细胞特异性标记物的缺失以及体内时空动态解析技术的局限性。未来亟需发展更加先进的技术,如高分辨率的时空组学、新型的遗传学工具、在体实时成像等。其次,需深入探究不同程序性死亡形式(如焦亡和铁死亡)之间的交叉对话机制情况,并阐明非神经元细胞死亡是如何具体地造成认知功能出现障碍。此外,应明确如何将反应性星形胶质细胞与小胶质细胞从有害表型转化为有益表型以促进组织修复。最后,积极筛选和开发靶向铁死亡(如GPX4激动剂)、焦亡(如GSDMD抑制剂)等通路的新式化合物,并对现有药物库进行重新定位筛选。

NOTES

*第一作者。

#通讯作者。

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