巨噬细胞介导免疫–骨耦联参与正畸牙移动的研究进展
Research Progress on Macrophage-Mediated Immuno-Bone Coupling in Orthodontic Tooth Movement
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2026.162747, PDF, HTML, XML,    科研立项经费支持
作者: 童雪莎, 杨静洁, 王云霁*:重庆医科大学附属口腔医院,重庆;口腔疾病研究重庆市重点实验室,重庆;口腔生物医学工程重庆市高校市级重点实验室,重庆;重庆市卫生健康委口腔生物医学工程重点实验室,重庆
关键词: 巨噬细胞正畸牙移动骨免疫学机械生物学Macrophages Orthodontic Tooth Movement Osteoimmunology Mechanobiology
摘要: 正畸通过施加适当的机械力来刺激牙周组织的重塑,从而实现错位牙齿的有序移动,改善咬合关系及口腔功能,其过程涉及复杂的生物学调控机制。正畸牙移动(orthodontic tooth movement, OTM)过程中,牙及牙周微环境发生无菌性炎症,产生各类信号转导因子和炎症介质,诱导各种细胞反应,最终导致压迫侧骨吸收和张力侧骨形成的协同发生。巨噬细胞作为一种重要的免疫细胞,是连接机械刺激、免疫反应与骨代谢的关键枢纽,在正畸牙移动的不同阶段,巨噬细胞呈现明显的时空分布特征和功能异质性,通过介导多种细胞间信号交流,参与调控牙齿移动、牙根吸收、牙周组织修复、骨组织改建及局部炎症反应等重要生物学过程。基于巨噬细胞在正畸过程中的重要作用,其在提高正畸治疗效果、预防正畸复发、降低并发症发生风险中具有潜在的应用价值。本文围绕巨噬细胞介导的免疫–骨耦联机制,系统综述其在正畸牙移动过程中的作用及调控机制,并探讨其潜在的临床应用前景,以期为正畸治疗中靶向调控巨噬细胞提供理论依据和新的研究思路。
Abstract: Orthodontic treatment applies appropriate mechanical forces to stimulate periodontal tissue remodeling, thereby achieving the orderly movement of malpositioned teeth and improving occlusal relationships and oral function. This process involves complex biological regulatory mechanisms. During orthodontic tooth movement (orthodontic tooth movement, OTM), a sterile inflammatory response occurs within the dental and periodontal microenvironment, leading to the release of various signaling molecules and inflammatory mediators. These factors induce coordinated cellular responses and ultimately result in coupled bone resorption on the compression side and bone formation on the tension side. Macrophages, as important immune cells, serve as a key regulatory hub linking mechanical stimulation, immune responses, and bone metabolism. At different stages of orthodontic tooth movement, macrophages exhibit distinct spatiotemporal distribution patterns and functional heterogeneity. Through mediating multiple forms of intercellular communication, they participate in the regulation of critical biological processes, including tooth movement, root resorption, periodontal tissue repair, bone remodeling, and local inflammatory responses. Given the essential role of macrophages in orthodontic processes, they hold potential application value in improving orthodontic treatment outcomes, preventing orthodontic relapse, and reducing the risk of treatment-related complications. This review focuses on macrophage-mediated immune-bone coupling mechanisms, systematically summarizing the roles and regulatory pathways of macrophages during orthodontic tooth movement and discussing their potential clinical applications. The aim is to provide a theoretical basis and new perspectives for macrophage-targeted regulation in orthodontic treatment.
文章引用:童雪莎, 杨静洁, 王云霁. 巨噬细胞介导免疫–骨耦联参与正畸牙移动的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(2): 3331-3340. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.162747

1. 引言

正畸治疗是一种通过施加适当的机械力来刺激牙周组织的重塑,使错位的牙齿移动到合适的位置并改善口腔咬合关系及功能的过程。正畸过程中的牙齿移动涉及到复杂的生物学机制,包括骨改建和组织炎症反应。经典的“压力–张力”理论提出,在正畸力作用下,牙及牙周膜(PDL)会在一侧被压缩另一侧被拉伸,在压迫侧,压力导致牙周膜纤维受压,进而导致牙槽骨受压,在张力侧,牙周膜纤维和牙槽骨被拉伸,组织发生应变和液体产生流动,激活机械感觉细胞,启动细胞内信号转导,并诱导各种细胞反应[1]。正畸牙移动(OTM)过程中,牙及牙周微环境发生无菌性炎症,产生各类信号转导因子和炎症介质,最终导致压迫侧的破骨细胞进行骨吸收和张力区域的成骨细胞成骨。

骨免疫学理论指出免疫系统和骨骼共享包括细胞因子、趋化因子、激素、受体和转录因子等多种分子[2],在细胞来源、信号分子及调控通路层面高度交叉,二者通过多种细胞因子和信号网络共同维持骨稳态[3]。破骨细胞源自与产生巨噬细胞和髓系树突状细胞相同的髓系前体,成骨细胞调控造血干细胞的生态位间接影响免疫细胞的生成与功能。此外,免疫细胞的许多可溶介质,包括细胞因子和生长因子,调控成骨细胞和破骨细胞的活性,其中巨噬细胞衍生的细胞因子是骨免疫调控最强的介质之一[4]

OTM中机械力刺激产生的细胞因子参与OTM的生物调节,在这个过程中,有多种免疫细胞被激活并参与局部炎症微环境的塑造[5]。RNA测序分先天免疫细胞和适应性免疫在正畸加力后不同时间点的不同变化揭示了免疫过程在正畸牙齿运动中的重要性[6]。除了骨组织重塑,OTM的过程还与牙骨质吸收、软组织重塑、正畸疼痛和复发相关,这些都有免疫细胞和免疫活性物质的参与调节[7],包括巨噬细胞、T细胞和B细胞[1] [8]-[11]等。其中巨噬细胞因其高度可塑性和功能多样性,被认为是连接机械刺激与骨重塑反应的重要生物学枢纽。巨噬细胞作为免疫系统的重要组成部分,其极化状态对于维持生物体内环境的稳定具有重大意义,是慢性炎症和相关病变中的关键细胞[12],在正畸过程也同样发挥了重要作用。

2. 巨噬细胞的生物学特性与功能异质性

巨噬细胞来源于骨髓中的单核细胞,广泛分布于体内各组织器官,是先天免疫系统的重要组成部分。在正常生理条件下,巨噬细胞通过清除凋亡细胞和细胞碎片、参与抗原呈递以及分泌稳态相关因子,维持组织内环境的稳定;在病理或应激状态下,其可迅速感知微环境变化并发挥抗炎、抗菌和抗肿瘤等免疫调节作用[13]。巨噬细胞具有显著的功能可塑性,可在不同微环境信号的驱动下发生表型转化。传统上,巨噬细胞被概括性地分为促炎型(M1)和抗炎/修复型(M2) [14]。M1巨噬细胞由脂多糖和干扰素IFN-γ诱导生成,可以分泌IL-1、IL-6、TNF-α等促炎相关因子[15],主要在炎症早期发挥重要作用,参与炎症启动和免疫防御。虽然炎性巨噬细胞在炎症早期有益的,但过度的免疫反应会导致慢性炎症和炎症性疾病[16]。为了抵消炎症性巨噬细胞反应对组织的潜在破坏,巨噬细胞发生细胞凋亡或转变为抗炎表型,即M2型。M2巨噬细胞由IL-4和IL-13等细胞因子诱导生成,分泌IL-10、TGF-β等抑制炎症反应[15],参与组织修复和免疫耐受,诱导伤口愈合和血管生成[16]

作为骨损伤修复的主要调节因子,巨噬细胞参与了炎症启动、组织重塑和骨骼再生的整个过程。值得注意的是,M1向M2的及时转换被认为是骨再生和炎症分辨的关键生物学事件,其失衡可能导致炎症迁延或修复延迟。在骨免疫调控过程中,巨噬细胞作为连接免疫反应与骨代谢的枢纽,其功能状态直接影响破骨–成骨。炎症早期,巨噬细胞呈现M1样表型,增强RANKL信号并抑制成骨相关转录因子[17],从而促进骨吸收;随着炎症消退,巨噬细胞代谢由糖酵解转向氧化磷酸化,逐步转变为M2样状态,分泌IL-10、VEGF、PDGF和OSM,促进成骨细胞分化和基质矿化[18]

巨噬细胞的高度灵活性和快速适应局部微环境的能力,使其在OTM过程中可作为破骨细胞和牙本质破坏细胞的前体、炎症调节剂和机械力感受及效应器参与调节[19]。巨噬细胞根据不同的环境条件改变为“促炎”或“抗炎”状态的显著可塑性,使它们在正畸牙移动这一高度动态的生物学过程中,呈现出明显的阶段性和时空异质性,在介导炎症或维持组织稳态中发挥不同的角色。值得注意的是单细胞测序和多组学研究表明,体内巨噬细胞功能状态存在于一个连续体上,并非处于离散的“促炎”或“抗炎”状态,而是呈现连续谱系的动态活化特征[20],这些状态由机械刺激、局部代谢状态、氧张力以及细胞–细胞接触信号等多重时空异质性微环境因素动态塑造,并通过复杂的分子网络协同引导极化方向[21]。这一认识为重新理解正畸牙移动过程中免疫–骨耦联的复杂性提供了新的理论框架。

3. 巨噬细胞在正畸牙移动中的作用机制

3.1. 参与牙齿移动的启动与加速

正畸力加载后,受压侧牙周组织迅速形成以促炎信号为特征的微环境,诱导单核细胞募集并向促炎型巨噬细胞分化,M1型巨噬细胞标志物如TNF-α等积累,可促进破骨细胞分化与活化,从而加速牙槽骨吸收并加速了OTM [22]。王彦等在皮质切开术辅助OTM中的研究发现,巨噬细胞是皮质切除术加速OTM的关键因素之一。牙槽骨皮质切开术通过增强局部炎症反应,进一步促进巨噬细胞浸润和促炎极化,骨吸收相关细胞因子IL-1β和TNF-α表达增加,破骨细胞分化的激活,从而放大骨重塑效应[23]。郝旭等采用单细胞RNA测序评估发现小鼠牙槽骨中的巨噬细胞可分为不同的簇,具有不同的功能。其中CCR2簇在OTM过程中有重要作用,而CCR2/CCL2轴在CCR2巨噬细胞中起重要作用,CCR2缺失将导致OTM抑制[24]

3.2. 调节正畸相关炎症反应

在OTM期间,正畸力的应用会诱导PDL周围的炎症,牙周膜细胞在机械刺激下释放多种炎症介质[25],而巨噬细胞通过放大或调节这些信号,参与炎症反应。Agnes Schröder等人通过体外模拟正畸牙齿运动的细胞实验证实了在正畸加力早期,巨噬细胞即在机械应力刺激下合成炎症介质,如PG-E2、IL-6、TNF-α等,参与触发和增强正畸牙齿移动的生物学机制[26]。巨噬细胞产生的细胞因子和趋化因子是免疫反应和炎症过程的关键步骤。细胞因子相互作用,放大信号传导,调节细胞表面受体,并对细胞功能进行协同或拮抗相互作用[27]

3.3. 参与骨重塑与成骨‑破骨平衡

在骨代谢调控中,巨噬细胞同时具备“促吸收”和“促形成”的双重功能。M1型巨噬细胞既可作为破骨细胞前体,又可分泌多种破骨生成相关因子。IL-1β和IL-6是由巨噬细胞产生的特征性细胞因子,与炎症细胞迁移相关,参与破骨细胞生成过程[28]。M2型巨噬细胞在OTM后期显著增加,分泌骨形态发生蛋白-2 (BMP-2)、转化生长因子β (TGF-β)和胰岛素样生长因子-1 (IGF-1),能够刺激间充质干细胞(MSC) (前体成骨细胞)进入成熟的成骨细胞,促进MSCs的增殖和成骨分化[29],这对于骨吸收的停止和组织修复的开始至关重要[1] [23]。此外,不同年龄来源的巨噬细胞表型和分泌蛋白质水平有所不同[27],其成骨的能力也不同,研究表明年轻的巨噬细胞在骨髓基质细胞中产生促进成骨细胞分化的因子,可以加速老年动物的骨折修复[30]。值得关注的是,正畸牙移动的顺利进行并非依赖单一促炎或促成骨信号,而依赖巨噬细胞表型转换在时间维度上的精确协调。若促炎型巨噬细胞向修复表型的转换发生延迟或受阻,局部炎症反应可能持续放大,破骨信号长期占优,从而导致牙槽骨吸收过度、成骨延迟甚至牙齿移动效率下降。

3.4. 影响牙周及牙髓组织修复

牙移动过程中根尖周膜血管受压,导致牙髓的细胞损伤、循环障碍和血管变化,出现短暂的缺血‑缺氧状态,从而诱导血管生成和组织修复反应[31]。研究发现,随着正畸力的持续加载,巨噬细胞由促炎状态逐渐向促修复状态转化,并伴随VEGF、HIF-1α等血管生成相关因子的上调,从而促进牙髓炎症消退及血管重建[32]

此外巨噬细胞还可以通过调节成纤维细胞和成骨细胞的活性,影响牙周组织的修复过程。通过促进巨噬细胞向M2型的极化,有助于增强牙周膜干细胞移植后牙周的再生,在这个过程中,牙周膜干细胞移植可通过改变免疫微环境、下调TNF-α的表达和上调IL-10、CD163的表达促进巨噬细胞向抗炎M2表型进一步极化,从而促进牙周组织再生[33]

3.5. 参与牙根吸收

牙根吸收是正畸治疗中常见的不良反应,其发生与局部炎症强度及免疫调控密切相关。多项研究表明,巨噬细胞极化失衡可加重牙根吸收,注射TNF-α抑制剂或IL-4可调节M1或M2的激活状态,降低M1/M2比值可以部分缓解牙根的吸收[34]。此外,在机械压力下牙周膜干细胞会发生经典的焦磷遁形,分泌IL-1β和IL-18,促进M1巨噬细胞极化,触发炎症反应,并上调RANKL/OPG比率牙根吸收[35]。方旭等[36]发现牙周膜中CXCL12细胞和CXCR4单核细胞在正畸机械力刺激下显著增加,机械力通过CXCL12/CXCR4轴吸引Ly6C++hi单核细胞和调节巨噬细胞极化,增加牙周组织中M1/M2比值,从而导致正畸过程中的牙根吸收。但也有研究认为压力引起的牙根吸收不依赖于巨噬细胞,因为极化巨噬细胞的条件培养基对牙骨质母细胞没有影响,但压力通过增强机械感受器Piezo1直接损害了牙骨质母细胞功能[37]。这提示正畸中的牙根吸收可能涉及多种机制的协同参与。因此,牙根吸收的发生不仅与机械应力强度相关,更是局部免疫调控失衡导致牙根稳态失衡的结果[38]。当M1型巨噬细胞持续占优而修复反应未能及时启动时,炎症微环境可能由“生理性调控”转变为“病理性损伤”,从而加重牙骨质破坏。这一现象提示,巨噬细胞表型转换障碍可能是正畸相关牙根吸收的重要免疫学基础之一。

4. 巨噬细胞参与正畸牙移动的调控机制

巨噬细胞的调节机制主要包括信号转导和转录调控两个方面。在正畸过程中,机械力刺激可以通过多种信号转导途径激活巨噬细胞。Piezo家族蛋白是一种机械敏感阳离子通道[39],在巨噬细胞中高度表达,其介导的Ca2+内流激活钙蛋白酶[40],与肌动蛋白之间形成正反馈驱动巨噬细胞活化[41] [42]。在周期性静水压刺激下Piezo1激活转录因子,通过维持HIF-1α稳定性推动感染过程中中性粒细胞募集和病原体清除[43]。机械拉伸可下调Piezo1的表达抑制巨噬细胞炎症[44]。此外Piezo1刺激巨噬细胞中p53发生乙酰化和去乙酰化,这一过程能使巨噬细胞向M2型极化并分泌TGF-β1,进而刺激骨髓间充质干细胞迁移、增殖和成骨分化[45]

G蛋白信号转的调节因子在控制各种细胞过程(如细胞分化)中起着关键作用[46]。RGS12是G蛋白信号转导调节因子家族中最大的蛋白质,参与多种信号通路,RGS12主要在破骨细胞中表达,是破骨细胞分化和功能的重要调节因子[46]。有研究采用RGS12促进巨噬细胞向M1表型极化来激活固有免疫应答,而巨噬细胞中RGS12的缺失可以抑制牙周炎的骨丢失和炎症细胞浸润[47]

除经典信号通路外,miRNA及多种转录因子在巨噬细胞功能调节中同样发挥重要作用。相关研究表明,特定miRNA可通过靶向关键转录因子调控巨噬细胞的活化、增殖和功能,从而影响正畸相关炎症反应和骨改建过程。miR-720和miR-127可以通过靶向GATA3和BCL6促进M1型极化[20],miR-125a-5p在M2型极化的巨噬细胞中上调。下调MiR-125a-5p可以促进M1表型标志物的表达,同时抑制M2表型标志物的表达,该过程通过靶向E26转化特异性变体6调节[48]

5. 巨噬细胞在正畸治疗中的应用前景

尽管近年来大量研究揭示了巨噬细胞在正畸牙移动中的重要作用,尤其是其在骨重塑和免疫反应中的双重功能,现有研究仍然存在一些局限性。首先,多数研究基于动物模型或体外极化体系,其结果难以完全反映人体正畸过程中复杂且动态变化的免疫微环境。此外,M1/M2转化的调控机制尚未完全阐明,尤其是在不同年龄和性别群体中的差异。未来研究可结合临床样本、单细胞测序、多组学分析及力学生物学模型,从时空维度系统解析巨噬细胞活化状态的连续变化及其调控“开关”,并进一步明确其在牙根吸收、牙齿移动停滞及正畸复发中的因果作用,为基于免疫调控的精准正畸策略提供理论依据。此外,如何通过外部干预精准调控巨噬细胞的极化状态,以优化治疗效果,也是亟待解决的问题。

免疫系统和骨骼在功能上高度耦合[1] [3],基于巨噬细胞在正畸过程中的重要作用,其在正畸治疗中有广泛的应用前景。从免疫–骨耦联的角度看,正畸牙移动并非单纯依赖促炎反应的增强,而更依赖于炎症启动与分辨之间的精细平衡。因此,通过调节巨噬细胞的时序性表型和功能转换可能构成调控牙齿移动效率及并发症风险的关键“免疫开关”。深入阐明其调控机制,有望为减少牙根吸收、优化正畸力学参数及实现个体化正畸治疗提供新的理论依据。此外,巨噬细胞在正畸复发中同样具有潜在作用。正畸复发指正畸后牙齿或颌骨的位置重新回到原来的状态,由多种原因引起,例如智齿萌出、不良口腔习惯、面部肌力不平衡、组织对原有位置的记忆性等,其细胞过程类似于OTM。由于牙槽上牙龈纤维的拉伸,牙齿可以沿其原始位置的方向移动,并伴有破骨细胞分布转移[7]。对复发中免疫细胞与牙周组织的相互调节机制进行深入研究,有望预见复发风险,减轻或预防正畸复发。

一些药物或生物材料被证明可以调节巨噬细胞的活化、增殖和功能。例如岩藻硫酸酯,被鉴定为来自褐藻的天然化合物,氧化应激、肿瘤生长、病毒感染和糖尿病的调节中发挥着多种作用,它可以升高磷酸化STAT3水平,调节增加M2巨噬细胞的比例,并促进Arg-1、CD206和IL-10的表达,从而减慢OTM速度和提高骨密度[49]。宿主对骨生物材料产生的免疫反应,是影响骨再生成效的核心因素。通过构建具备骨样交错纳米界面的仿生分级纤维内矿化胶原(HIMC),发现其可促使M2型巨噬细胞极化并分泌IL-4,进而推动间充质干细胞向成骨方向分化[50]。然而,该类治疗策略尚处于初步探索时期,需要进一步的研究来验证其有效性和安全性。

此外,细胞外囊泡(EV),包括来自巨噬细胞的外泌体,已被证实能够调控炎症及多种代谢疾病中的细胞间通信。外泌体作为细胞间信息传递的载体,具有免疫原性低、生物相容性高、天然靶向性好以及易于穿越生物屏障等优势[51]。研究显示,M1型巨噬细胞分泌的外泌体可通过向骨髓间充质干细胞递送miR-222,从而诱发细胞凋亡[52]。而M2型巨噬细胞来源的外泌体则能促进骨髓间充质干细胞成骨分化,加速骨折修复[53]。此外,在牙周炎相关研究中,牙龈卟啉单胞菌脂多糖激活的炎症巨噬细胞所释放的外泌体,可调控骨髓间充质干细胞并抑制其成骨分化,这为牙周组织再生提供了新的干预思路[54]

间充质干细具有多向分化潜能,能与先天及适应性免疫系统的细胞相互作用,调节多种免疫功能。进入体内后,这类干细胞可诱导外周免疫耐受,迁移至损伤部位,从而抑制促炎因子释放、支持受损细胞存活[55]。与此同时,间充质干细胞与单核—巨噬细胞系存在双向调控关系:M2样巨噬细胞及其分泌的介质能够促进人间充质干细胞的增殖与迁移[56]。反之,经过预处理的间充质干细胞也能增强其对巨噬细胞的调控能力,推动巨噬细胞由促炎M1型向抗炎M2型转化,进而调节炎症进程[57] [58]

巨噬细胞的靶向治疗在癌症免疫治疗中已受到广泛关注,研究表明,巨噬细胞靶向免疫疗法可有效增强针对肿瘤生长、进展和转移的适应性保护性免疫[59] [60],主要方案包括耗尽肿瘤组织中的巨噬细胞或抑制巨噬细胞募集[61] [62],以减少肿瘤血管生成并抑制肿瘤进展,或巨噬细胞重编程调节M1、M2比例以重塑其潜在的免疫刺激作用[63]。工程巨噬细胞[64]、纳米颗粒辅助药物[65]和溶瘤病毒[66]也已被证明可用于巨噬细胞的免疫治疗和药物递送。巨噬细胞的M1、M2失衡是一把双刃剑,在癌症、自身免疫性疾病和疾病炎症中发挥着不同的功能,包括在正畸治疗中[34]-[36]。但相关研究在正畸治疗中尚不多见,未来可能将巨噬细胞的靶向治疗运用于正畸治疗中。

基金项目

重庆市科卫联合医学科研资助项目(编号:2021MSXM114)。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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