瑞芬太尼诱导痛觉过敏机制的研究进展
Research Progress on the Mechanism of Remifentanil-Induced Hyperalgesia
摘要: 瑞芬太尼作为一种常用的静脉麻醉药,具有快速代谢和无蓄积效应,但瑞芬太尼诱导的痛觉过敏(RIH)给围术期管理带来挑战。RIH表现为对轻微刺激的过度疼痛反应,包括机械性和热痛觉过敏,通常在使用瑞芬太尼后几小时或几天发生。其机制涉及中枢神经系统的过度敏化、免疫细胞激活和促炎细胞因子的释放。瑞芬太尼通过激活Toll样受体4 (TLR4)、NMDAR和AMPAR等受体,引发神经炎症反应,增强神经元对伤害性刺激的敏感性,从而引起痛觉过敏。理解RIH的机制有助于指导瑞芬太尼的合理使用,预防术后并发症。本文综述了RIH的机制及其对疼痛管理的影响,旨在优化围术期疼痛控制并改善患者恢复。
Abstract: Remifentanil, a commonly used intravenous anesthetic, is known for its rapid metabolism and lack of accumulation, but remifentanil-induced hyperalgesia (RIH) poses a challenge in perioperative management. RIH is characterized by an exaggerated pain response to mild stimuli, including mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia, which typically occurs within hours or days after remifentanil administration. The mechanism involves central sensitization, immune cell activation, and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Remifentanil activates receptors such as Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), NMDAR, and AMPAR, triggering neuroinflammation, which enhances neuronal sensitivity to noxious stimuli, leading to hyperalgesia. Understanding the mechanisms of RIH helps guide the rational use of remifentanil and prevents postoperative complications. This review summarizes the mechanisms of RIH and its impact on pain management, aiming to optimize perioperative pain control and improve patient recovery.
文章引用:宁柳娴, 董朝轩. 瑞芬太尼诱导痛觉过敏机制的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(3): 209-217. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.163781

1. 引言

瑞芬太尼,作为一种新型超短效阿片类药物,于1996年首次应用于临床静脉麻醉。由于其在血浆中通过非特异性血浆和组织酯酶水解,能够快速失活,瑞芬太尼的使用无需根据患者的年龄、性别、体重或肝肾功能进行剂量调整。所以无论是长时间输注还是连续多次栓剂注射,瑞芬太尼都不会发生蓄积[1]。尽管瑞芬太尼在临床中得到了广泛应用,但其在一定剂量下也存在不可避免的问题——瑞芬太尼导致的痛觉过敏(remifentanil-induced hyperalgesia, RIH)。研究发现,静脉麻醉中临床相关剂量(≥0.3 μg/kg/min)的瑞芬太尼可能会引发痛觉过敏[2]

痛觉过敏分为原发性和继发性。原发性痛觉过敏是对创伤或手术切口等有害刺激的反应,由外周伤害感受器致敏引起,局限于损伤部位。另一方面,继发性痛觉过敏通常表现在远离受损区域的地方,被认为是中枢对疼痛的敏感性增加。

阿片类药物诱发的痛觉过敏(opioid-induced hyperalgesia, OIH)是继发性痛觉过敏的一部分[3]。目前,越来越多的临床和基础研究揭示了瑞芬太尼诱发痛觉过敏的潜在机制,这些机制涉及神经元、胶质细胞、免疫细胞及促炎因子等多方面的复杂互动。本文旨在从下行疼痛调节系统、长时程增强、炎症以及不同受体和细胞的角度系统地梳理和总结瑞芬太尼诱发痛觉过敏的机制,并探讨可能的治疗策略,以便为临床上的疼痛管理和麻醉实践提供理论依据。

2. 下行疼痛调节系统

瑞芬太尼通过下行疼痛调节系统,使传入的疼痛信号放大。导水管周围灰质(periaqueductal gray, PAG)、中缝大核(raphe magnus nucleus, NRM)和邻近的头端腹内侧延髓(rostral ventromedial medulla, RVM)的结构,以及它们向脊髓背角的投射,构成了从大脑“下行”到脊髓的疼痛控制系统的“传出通道”。这种投射可以产生抑制或促进伤害效应。μ阿片类镇痛药的主要作用部位是下行疼痛调节系统,包括腹外侧导水管周围灰质(ventrolateral periaqueductal gray, vlPAG)、头端腹内侧延髓(RVM)和脊髓[4]。有研究表明雄性小鼠输注瑞芬太尼可通过下调PAG中的μ阿片受体来介导痛觉过敏的发生[5]。RVM通过“ON”细胞来促进疼痛的传导,通过“OFF”细胞来抑制疼痛的传导[6]。“ON”细胞、“OFF”细胞是一种特殊类型的神经元。有研究表明来自RVM的下行促进是导致痛觉过敏的原因之一,而可能位于ON细胞上的NK-1受体在启动痛觉传导的下行促进中发挥着重要作用[7]。阿片类药物增加了下行疼痛通路的激活,在RVM内产生神经可塑性变化,导致痛觉过敏[8]。因此,瑞芬太尼可能是通过增加ON-细胞的活跃性或减少OFF-细胞的抑制作用来导致痛觉过敏。

3. 谷氨酸受体

谷氨酸受体的磷酸化增加或表达上调促进了RIH的发展。谷氨酸是中枢神经系统中的主要兴奋性神经递质,它在突触中启动快速信号传输,然后被周围胶质细胞,特别是星形胶质细胞重新吸收。谷氨酸转运体-1 (Glutamate transporter-1, GLT-1)是主要的转运体,它吸收突触谷氨酸以维持最佳的细胞外谷氨酸水平,从而防止谷氨酸在突触间隙积聚并产生兴奋毒性。越来越多的证据表明,兴奋性中毒与包括OIH在内的各种神经系统疾病有关[9]。谷氨酸受体分为代谢型谷氨酸受体(G蛋白偶联受体)和离子型谷氨酸受体,离子型谷氨酸受体根据药理学特性可以分为四类,即N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸受体(N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor, NMDAR)、α-氨基-3-羟基-5-甲基-4-异恶唑丙酸受体(α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor, AMPAR)、红藻酸受体(kainate receptor, KAR)和GluD受体(也称为δ受体) [10]

3.1. NMDAR

NMDAR的转运和激活在引发和维持术后RIH中发挥着重要作用。脊髓背角NMDAR的激活参与了多种疼痛模型的疼痛传导机制[11]。阿片类药物作用于μ阿片类受体引起细胞内信号的改变,导致NMDAR磷酸化增加或表达上调。在生理状态下,脊髓背角的初级传入末梢的NMDAR通常处于非磷酸化状态,且无功能活性。然而,阿片类药物的作用使突触前NMDAR被内源性激活,导致突触间谷氨酸释放增加,从而激活脊髓背角的突触后神经元而引起痛觉过敏。研究表明,μ阿片受体激活后可能是通过丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK)信号通路介导了突触前NMDAR的磷酸化[12]。另有研究发现,蛋白激酶C (protein kinase C, PKC)可通过调控初级感觉神经末梢突触前NMDAR的活性,增强伤害性输入的突触传递,从而促进痛觉过敏的发生[13]。尽管PKC和MAPK是两种不同的信号传导通路,但它们之间可能存在相互作用、相互调节NMDAR的活性。

有研究认为降低NMDAR的NR1亚基磷酸化或NR2亚基磷酸化可减轻RIH [14] [15]。围手术期使用NMDAR拮抗剂可能通过降低术后疼痛强度、减少吗啡消耗和提高患者满意度,为预防RIH提供了可行的解决方案[2]。综上,减少脊髓NMDAR的磷酸化或抑制其过度表达对缓解RIH具有重要作用。这为针对RIH的分子机制研究及其临床干预提供了重要理论依据。

3.2. AMPAR

AMPAR的表达和功能与RIH密切相关,AMPAR的GluA1亚基是调控其通道活性的关键成分,广泛分布于脊髓浅表背角神经元的突触后膜。在雄性大鼠的痛觉过敏模型中,下调脊髓AMPAR的表达或抑制其功能被证明能够有效减缓RIH [16] [17]。RIH的发生与脊髓背角神经元中含GluA1的AMPAR从胞质到突触后膜的表面运输的相关[18]。此外,在雄性大鼠前扣带皮层中也观察到AMPAR亚基GluR1的磷酸化水平显著增加,这一变化可能进一步参与RIH的形成[19]。研究发现,成年小鼠大脑中左右两侧前扣带皮层之间存在直接的谷氨酸能连接,这种连接主要通过AMPA和KA受体传递兴奋性信号。光遗传学激活该通路,可以增强小鼠对机械刺激和高温刺激的敏感性,表现为痛觉过敏。而轻度抑制该通路可同时降低原发性和继发性痛觉过敏[20]

3.3. 其他谷氨酸受体

谷氨酸受体离子型海人酸3 (Glutamate Receptor Ionotropic Kainate 3, GRIK3)是KAR的一个亚单位,miR-134-5p (一种在中枢神经系统中特异表达的神经元相关微小RNA)能与GRIK3的3’非翻译区结合,导致GRIK3 mRNA降解或翻译抑制,进而减少兴奋性突触后电流(mEPSCs)频率和幅度。miR-134-5p过表达或GRIK3拮抗剂可改善RIH [21]。这一机制提示miR-134-5p/GRIK3通路可能成为RIH的潜在治疗靶点。总而言之KAR在RIH中通过增强脊髓兴奋性突触传递和突触可塑性,促进中枢敏化从而加剧痛觉过敏。

此外,代谢型谷氨酸受体(Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor, mGluR)同样在RIH的病理生理中发挥重要作用。来自初级感觉神经元的代谢型谷氨酸受体5 (Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5, mGluR5)被发现可以增强突触NMDAR的功能[22]。此外,mGluR5与过氧化物酶-3 (peroxiredoxin-3, PRDX3)乙酰化之间存在正向调控关系,PRDX3是线粒体内的抗氧化酶,负责清除ROS (活性氧),PRDX3的乙酰化会使其清除ROS的能力下降。瑞芬太尼可使脊髓mGluR5表达显著上调、PRDX3乙酰化水平升高、ROS氧化损伤增加,进而导致痛觉过敏。通过鞘内注射青蒿琥酯(青蒿素的主要衍生物之一,一线抗疟疾药物)治疗可以抑制瑞芬太尼诱导的大鼠脊髓mGluR5过表达,降低PRDX3乙酰化恢复其抗氧化能力进而缓解RIH [23]。青蒿琥酯是一种天然药物,安全性高、价廉有效,有望成为RIH干预的新策略,但在临床常规手术患者中,鞘内给药因其侵入性、操作复杂性及潜在并发症风险,难以作为常规预防或治疗手段广泛推广。

KAR和mGluR分别通过不同的分子机制参与了瑞芬太尼相关痛觉过敏的发生与维持。针对这些受体的靶向干预,如KAR拮抗剂和青蒿琥酯,可能为RIH的临床管理提供有效的治疗策略。

4. 长时程增强

长时程增强(Long-Term Potentiation, LTP)指的是在特定条件下神经元之间的突触连接强度持续增强的一种现象,其特征是突触后神经元对突触前神经元释放的神经递质反应显著增强,并且这种增强的效应可以持续数小时、数天,甚至更长时间。LTP在系统性超敏中的作用,尤其是其与持续性疼痛模型中痛觉过敏的关联,已被广泛研究[24]。C纤维突触处的LTP构成了长时间放大痛觉的强大模型系统[25]

瑞芬太尼通过静脉给药或脊髓给药可诱导C纤维与脊髓浅表背角神经元之间的LTP [26]。LTP的形成与NMDAR的激活密切相关,特别是NMDAR的钙离子通道在LTP的诱导和维持过程中发挥关键作用[27]。研究表明,瑞芬太尼诱发C纤维的LTP需要脊髓μ阿片受体(μ-opioid receptors, MOR)和脊髓NMDAR共同参与[28]。μ阿片受体在C纤维突触和脊髓浅表背角神经元上均有表达,其过度激活会导致痛觉过敏现象。进一步的临床随机对照实验也证实,术前使用μ阿片受体拮抗剂可以降低术后瑞芬太尼诱导的痛觉过敏[29]。LTP的诱导机制为瑞芬太尼诱导痛觉过敏提供了重要的病理学基础,μ阿片受体和NMDA受体是这一过程中关键的分子靶点。

5. 炎症

神经胶质细胞和免疫细胞的激活是瑞芬太尼诱导痛觉过敏(RIH)中关键的病理生理过程之一。这种激活会导致促炎介质(如细胞因子、趋化因子)的过度产生,形成神经炎症状态。刺激外周传入神经纤维的有害事件也可能激活位于脊髓背根神经节和背角的促伤害感受器以及外周神经胶质细胞,引发外周敏化并将神经炎症传播到大脑。一旦激活,小胶质细胞会产生细胞因子和趋化因子,这些细胞因子和趋化因子可以增加二级神经元的敏感性和放电特性,这种神经元的高敏状态会进一步放大伤害性信号的传递,导致更强的痛觉感知。该过程被称为中枢敏化,是RIH的核心病理特征之一[30]

5.1. TLR4与小胶质细胞

阿片类药物(如瑞芬太尼)给药可激活Toll样受体4 (Toll Like Receptor 4, TLR4),进而启动一系列炎症过程[31]。TLR4是一种经典的先天免疫受体,已在感觉神经元中检测到并参与各种伤害感受的过程,但其在RIH中的作用仍未完全明确[32]。脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharides, LPS)是革兰氏阴性菌细胞壁的组成部分,作为经典的外源性TLR4激动剂,可以激活TLR4信号通路。在没有LPS的情况下,阿片受体激动剂会非选择性地激活中枢神经系统(central nervous system, CNS)中的TLR4信号通路。阿片类药物以与LPS平行的方式与TLR4结合,激活TLR4信号,从而导致活化B细胞的核因子卡巴轻链增强子(Nuclear Factor kappa B, NF-κB)表达和肿瘤坏死因子-α (Tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α)、白细胞介素-1β (Interleukin-1 beta, IL-1β)、白细胞介素-6 (Interleukin-6, IL-6)等促炎细胞因子的产生[33]。研究显示,应用TLR4拮抗剂可以以有益的方式干预炎症过程[34]

在中枢神经系统中,TLR4主要在小胶质细胞上表达[35]。激活小胶质细胞引发神经炎症反应,一般认为主要是通过激活TLR4,而不是激活阿片类受体。小胶质细胞激活后可以极化为两种不同的表型,M1型表现为促炎作用M2型表现为抗炎作用[36]。NF-κB信号传导的激活导致小胶质细胞M1型表现的基因转录,并进一步发挥促炎作用[37]

瑞芬太尼暴露下,脊髓小胶质细胞在香草素受体4型瞬时感受器电位(Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 4, TRPV4)介导下通过向M1极化参与RIH [38]。有研究显示,抑制脊髓背角星形胶质细胞、小胶质细胞的活化及其促炎细胞因子的产生可以缓解RIH [39]。此外电针刺激也可通过抑制大鼠脊髓小胶质细胞的活化,达到预防瑞芬太尼引起的痛觉过敏[40]。更有证据表明,与野生型小鼠相比TLR4缺陷小鼠不会出现瑞芬太尼诱导的机械痛觉过敏[41],因此抑制TLR4可减轻机械性痛觉过敏[32]

有趣的是小胶质细胞参与痛觉过敏的过程中存在性别差异,小胶质细胞和TLR4的激活仅在雄性动物的机械性痛觉过敏的发生中起重要作用,而在雌性动物中,这一过程的作用较弱[42]。产生性别差异可能是性激素的原因。雌激素被认为具有抗炎作用,可以减少小胶质细胞的激活[43]。TLR4的激活可能是通过促使小胶质细胞向M1表型转变并释放更多的促炎因子,进而导致痛觉过敏。

5.2. 趋化因子

趋化因子是指根据其诱导白细胞趋化的能力而确定的小型分泌细胞因子。它们是免疫系统、外周系统和中枢神经系统的重要调节因子。趋化因子通过与阿片类受体的相互作用,在疼痛传递中发挥双重作用:一方面,它们促进疼痛信号的传播,另一方面,也能通过免疫细胞释放内源性阿片肽来缓解疼痛。至今,哺乳动物中已鉴定出超过50种趋化因子,这些因子根据其氨基末端区域半胱氨酸残基的位置和数量,将它们分为四个亚家族:C-、CC-、CXC-和CX3C-趋化因子[44]

瑞芬太尼通过激活趋化因子受体增强了神经炎症反应,这种反应是通过趋化因子信号通路导致微胶质细胞或其他免疫细胞的激活,进而放大了疼痛信号,最终引起机械性和热痛觉过敏[16] [45]-[47]。在背根神经节(DRG)中,趋化因子CCL3及其受体CCR5的激活被证明促进了瑞芬太尼诱导的痛觉过敏[48]。趋化因子可能通过上调NMDA受体的表达来发挥作用,但其具体机制仍不完全清楚,推测可能通过WNT信号通路进行调控[46]

需要注意的是,以上研究均在雄性大鼠中进行,因此在雌性大鼠中的结果是否一致尚待进一步验证。因此,考虑到性别差异在免疫反应中的潜在影响,未来的研究应特别关注这一点。

5.3. 促炎细胞因子

促炎细胞因子在瑞芬太尼诱导的痛觉过敏机制中扮演重要角色。痛觉过敏与中枢和外周的炎症反应密切相关,而TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6等促炎细胞因子是炎症反应的重要调节因子[49]。在中脑导水管周围灰质中,阿片类药物通过TLR4激活小胶质细胞,激活的小胶质细胞释放促炎细胞因子(IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α),释放的促炎细胞因子增加邻近神经元NMDAR的磷酸化从而导致痛觉过敏[50]。由此可见,促炎细胞因子是痛觉过敏发生和维持中的一个环节。

拮抗神经胶质细胞和促炎性细胞因子的药物可以逆转痛觉过敏。例如,选择性2型大麻素受体(Cannabinoid receptor 2, CB2)激动剂通过抑制脊髓背角胶质细胞的激活、减少促炎性细胞因子的产生,从而显著缓解痛觉过敏[39]。有研究表明,电针治疗能够显著抑制手术切口、瑞芬太尼输注及其联合所诱导的促炎性细胞因子的产生[51]。IL-6通过激活JAK2/STAT3信号通路在参与痛觉过敏的发生与维持,地塞米松通过竞争性结合IL-6,下调IL-6/JAK2/STAT3信号通路,从而缓解痛觉过敏[52]。在背根神经节(Dorsal Root Ganglion, DRG)中基质金属蛋白酶-9 (Matrix Metalloproteinase-9, MMP-9)表达升高促进了IL-1β的活化,IL-1β活化促进脊髓胶质细胞激活和MAPK/NMDAR信号上调进而导致痛觉敏化。N-乙酰半胱氨酸(N-acetyl-cysteine, NAC)通过抑制DRG中MMP-9的激活,阻断了上述级联反应,有效缓解了RIH [53]。NAC是一种“古老”、安全且常用的临床药物,被广泛用作对乙酰氨基酚过量服用的特效解毒剂,未来有望成为干预RIH的药物。

6. 结论

瑞芬太尼诱导的痛觉过敏(RIH)作为一种复杂的病理生理现象,其机制涉及疼痛调节通路、受体激活、长时程增强及炎症反应等多方面,但这些研究大多是基础研究和动物实验,其向临床转化仍面临着诸多现实挑战。尽管当前关于RIH的研究已取得重要进展,但许多关键机制仍需进一步阐明。未来研究应重点关注多机制间的相互作用,并将基础研究转化成临床,探索更为精准的干预策略,以更有效地指导瑞芬太尼的临床使用,降低RIH的发生率,改善术后疼痛的管理。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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