免疫炎症生物标志物与缺血性脑卒中病理及 预后的研究进展
Advances in Research on Immune and Inflammatory Biomarkers in the Pathophysiology and Prognosis of Ischemic Stroke
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2026.163915, PDF, HTML, XML,   
作者: 杨竣婷, 贾功伟*:重庆医科大学附属第二医院康复医学科,重庆
关键词: 缺血性脑卒中预后炎症免疫反应细胞因子生物标志物Ischemic Stroke Prognosis Inflammation Immune Response Cytokines Biomarkers
摘要: 缺血性脑卒中(ischemic stroke, IS)表现为大脑局部缺血梗死,引发神经细胞死亡,导致不同程度的神经功能缺损,进而导致患者生存质量下降,因此对预后不良患者进行识别尤为重要。近年来,卒中后免疫与炎症生物标志物的相关研究取得了显著进展。免疫炎症反应是贯穿缺血性脑卒中病理与修复全过程的核心机制。本文综述了急性期免疫炎症通过血脑屏障破坏、氧化应激加剧和神经毒性介质释放加重损伤;而亚急性与慢性期的免疫调控则对坏死组织清除、血管生成和神经修复至关重要。其中重点概述了IL-1β、TNF-α、IL-6、MMP-9、IL-17A、IL-10和TGFβ生物标志物,不仅参与上述病理过程,更具有明确的预后价值,为未来缺血性卒中的预后预测提供了新的临床应用策略和研究方向。
Abstract: Ischemic stroke manifests as a focal cerebral ischemic infarction, triggering neuronal cell death and resulting in varying degrees of neurological dysfunction, which consequently diminishes patients’ quality of life. Identifying patients with poor prognosis is therefore of paramount importance. Recent years have witnessed significant advances in research concerning immune and inflammatory biomarkers post-stroke. The immune-inflammatory response constitutes a central mechanism throughout the entire pathological and reparative process of ischemic stroke. This review examines how acute-phase immune inflammation exacerbates injury through blood-brain barrier disruption, intensified oxidative stress, and the release of neurotoxic mediators. Conversely, immune regulation during the subacute and chronic phases proves crucial for necrotic tissue clearance, angiogenesis, and neural repair. Particular emphasis is placed on biomarkers including IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, MMP-9, IL-17A, IL-10, and TGFβ, which not only participate in the aforementioned pathological processes but also possess clear prognostic value. This provides novel clinical application strategies and research directions for future prognostic prediction in ischemic stroke.
文章引用:杨竣婷, 贾功伟. 免疫炎症生物标志物与缺血性脑卒中病理及 预后的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(3): 1364-1373. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.163915

1. 引言

脑卒中是全球第二大死亡原因和主要残疾原因,具有高发病率、高致死率、高致残率和高复发率的特点,是危及全球范围的重大健康问题[1]。其中缺血性脑卒中(IS)是最常见的脑卒中类型,约占脑卒中病例的80% [2]。尽管急性期机械性血栓切除术和溶栓治疗取得显著成果,但仍有大部分患者遗留明确的功能障碍。

传统预后评估工具主要依赖临床量表和影像学检查,而近年来,反映全身及神经炎症状态的生物标志物受到了广泛关注。免疫系统在脑卒中发病过程中发挥着双重作用:一方面,炎症会增加血脑屏障(BBB)通透性、加剧氧化应激并导致神经元损伤;另一方面,在亚急性期和慢性期,免疫调控过程又有助于神经修复、血管生成及坏死组织清除[3]。这种双重作用使得炎症介质不仅是病理机制的组成部分,其中的免疫炎症因子还可作为潜在的生物标志物。

因此,本文就脑卒中预后相关的免疫和炎症生物标志物研究进展进行综述,以期为IS预后结局的评估与预测提供新的思路和方向。

2. 缺血性卒中后的免疫与炎症反应

2.1. 急性期免疫与炎症的病理生理机制

急性缺血性卒中发生后,机体立即启动先天免疫反应,梗死区缺血坏死的神经细胞释放HMGB1、热休克蛋白、ATP等损伤相关分子模式(DAMPs),随后被中枢神经系统固有免疫细胞(小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞)以及内皮细胞表达的模式识别受体(TLR4, TLR2, NLRP3)识别,从而迅速激活NF-κB等促炎信号通路,诱导下游炎症因子表达和释放[4] [5]。NLRP3炎症小体被激活后,促进促炎因子IL-1β、IL-18释放,同时使GSDMD-N形成膜孔,诱导细胞焦亡,此时进一步释放DAMPs,再次激活PRRs,放大炎症反应[6]。激活的小胶质细胞向M1表型转化,释放大量TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6等促炎因子,增强炎症反应,增加血脑屏障(BBB)通透性并加剧细胞损伤与水肿。脑血管内皮细胞上调ICAM-1、VCAM-1等黏附分子,并释放CXCL8等趋化因子,促进外周免疫细胞浸润。浸润的中性粒细胞释放活性氧和MMPs,造成血脑屏障进一步破坏[7]。这种急性期的促炎性免疫反应是卒中后继发性脑损伤的重要因素,与梗死体积扩大和功能预后不良密切相关。

2.2. 亚急性及慢性期免疫与炎症的病理生理机制

在亚急性期和慢性期,强烈促炎反应逐渐向抗炎及免疫调节状态转化。在此期间,IL‑10、TGF‑β等抗炎因子诱导小胶质细胞由促炎的M1型向具有抗炎与修复特性M2型极化,通过TREM2、MerTK等受体介导清除坏死细胞与组织碎片,防止继发炎症的持续扩散,并分泌BDNF、IGF-1等神经营养因子,促进神经重塑和功能恢复[5] [8]。在亚急性期,T淋巴细胞浸润缺血脑组织,外周调节性T细胞(Tregs)和Th2细胞显著增加,通过分泌抗炎细胞因子、抑制中性粒细胞和其他促炎T细胞亚群的功能,促进小胶质细胞向M2型极化,限制继发性炎症损伤及促进神经再生与血管重塑[9]。但是,卒中不仅引发局部免疫激活,也通过神经内分泌通路诱导全身免疫抑制,下丘脑–垂体–肾上腺(HPA)轴与交感神经激活导致外周淋巴细胞减少、免疫应答功能下降,从而显著增加感染风险,这种系统性免疫失衡显著影响卒中的慢性预后[10]。因此,亚急性及慢性期的免疫炎症主要在于免疫调节与组织修复,这种动态平衡对于卒中后神经修复和功能恢复至关重要。

3. 缺血性卒中的关键免疫和炎症生物标志物

3.1. IL-1β

IL-1β是一种促炎细胞因子,主要由激活的M1型小胶质细胞分泌,在卒中发生后脑损伤进展中起重要作用。在缺血性卒中发生后早期,损伤相关分子模式激活Toll样受体信号通路,促使小胶质细胞迅速释放IL-1β [11]。IL-1β的过度分泌可通过激活下游IL-1R1/TRAF6信号通路,促进神经元中NLRP3炎症小体的形成,并且活化的IL-1β会与多种细胞类型(包括内皮细胞、神经元和胶质细胞)上的IL-1受体结合,通过激活NF-κB等通路,促进TNF-α、IL-6等下游表达上调,放大炎症级联反应,从而扩大缺血损伤范围[12] [13]。在这期间,IL-1β通过增强谷氨酸兴奋性毒性并促进钙离子内流,诱导线粒体功能障碍和细胞凋亡,导致神经元及轴突结构破坏,使NfL释放增加[14]。在IL-1β诱导的炎症过程中,胶质细胞损伤导致GFAP等特异性结构蛋白增加,其血液水平升高与炎症强度及组织损伤范围呈正相关[15]。在临床研究中,Catana等人发现,入院时IL-1β水平与美国国立卫生研究院卒中量表(NIHSS)评估的脑卒中严重程度呈强正相关。此外,较高的IL-1β浓度与患者死亡率升高相关[16]。IL-1β是缺血性脑卒中后脑损伤重要的炎症标志物。但在恢复期,较低水平的IL-1β刺激部分小胶质细胞从M1向M2转变,释放有Arg1、IGF-1等因子,在促进神经修复、促进神经干细胞增殖与分化、并支持血管生成与组织重塑中发挥一定作用[17] [18]

3.2. TNF-α

TNF-α是缺血性卒中后最早上调的促炎细胞因子之一,初期主要由小胶质细胞、浸润性巨噬细胞释放,在患者发病后的急性期迅速升高,随后在12-24小时达到高峰。TNF-α与受体结合后激活NF-κB通路,促进自身及其他炎症因子(如IL-1β、IL-6)的表达,形成炎症级联反应[19]。并且研究发现,TNF-α可通过诱导基质金属蛋白酶-9 (MMP-9)的释放破坏血脑屏障(BBB),而抗TNF-α治疗可显著减轻BBB的破坏程度[20] [21]。但越来越多的证据表明,缺血性卒中后神经炎症并非单向的有害的过程,而是经历从急性促炎反应向后期修复阶段的动态转变。在缺血性卒中后的亚急性期,TNF-α通过TNFR1的信号传导,上调整合素(α5β1和αVβ3)表达,进而促进毛细血管内皮细胞增殖与血管重塑[22]。尽管TNF-α在第7天甚至更远时间显著上升,导致患者更差的长期预后,但将其完全抑制将导致修复受阻,卒中后炎症与抗炎之间的平衡可能是改善预后的关键[19] [23]

3.3. IL-6

IL-6作为一种参与免疫调节的炎性细胞因子,不仅是卒中后损伤的标志物,更是主动参与“破坏–修复”全过程的关键效应分子。在脑血管闭塞后几小时内,IL-6水平迅速升高,通过JAK2/STAT3信号通路,促使小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞向促炎表型极化,并释放更多炎性因子,形成正反馈循环,导致炎症级联放大,加重血脑屏障破坏、脑水肿和神经细胞损伤,与卒中后神经功能缺损程度、梗死体积增大及不良预后相关[24] [25]。期间可检测到星形胶质细胞来源的S100B在卒中患者显著升高,与IL-6水平呈正相关,且二者均与梗死体积增大相关[26]。一项临床观察性研究支持上述结论,IL-6作为脑卒中预后的预测生物标志,其水平升高与NIHSS和mRS之间呈统计学上显著的正相关,表明IL-6水平越高,卒中后3个月结局更差且死亡率更高[27]。但在脑卒中恢复期,星形胶质细胞分泌的IL-6可介导免疫抑制微环境,促进神经发生、血管生成和细胞存活[28]。Feng等发现,在脑缺血小鼠模型中,在卒中后第14天开始给药,促进星形胶质细胞分泌IL-6上调,最终促进小鼠神经血管再生和功能恢复[29]。在另一小鼠大脑中动脉阻塞(MCAO)模型中,IL-6与可溶性IL-6受体(sIL-6R)联合给药会增加梗死体积,而单独注射IL-6则可改善神经功能[30]。综上所述,IL-6在缺血性脑卒中中发挥着双重作用,尽管大部分研究证实其在脑脊液和血清中的水平可反映IS的严重程度,但仍需进一步研究以明确动态IL-6水平与脑卒中预后的关系。

3.4. MMP-9

MMP-9是基质金属蛋白酶家族中的一种明胶酶,它主要作用于血管周围基底膜的主要成分,在卒中预后中具有双重作用。在缺血性卒中早期,其浓度升高可导致脑血管屏障破坏和通透性增加,从而导致炎症激活,加剧神经功能缺损[31] [32]。破坏的BBB使脑组织来源的结构蛋白如GFAP和S100B进入外周循环,MMP-9与这些神经损伤标志物水平升高共同反映脑组织损伤程度和血脑屏障受损情况[33]。Saleem等人在实验性研究中亦发现,予以MMP-9抗体抑制剂治疗,可显著改善卒中后神经行为结果并延长了生存时间[34]。但在卒中发生后延迟期,MMP-9可降解胶质瘢痕,增加了梗死周边区域的微血管数量,促进神经发生和突触发生,具有促进神经功能恢复的作用。Du等[35]研究表明,急性缺血性卒中1h后予以MMP-9抑制剂可减轻神经炎症,增加神经元存活和突触完整性,但一周内持续予以MMP-9抑制剂损害了神经功能恢复,并抑制了血管生成。CAI等[36]实验性研究表明,在短暂性大脑中动脉闭塞(tMCAO)后第7天进行MMP-9干预,改善了卒中后神经功能结局。表明MMP-9在缺血性卒中后不同时期具有双重作用。

3.5. IL-17A

IL-17A是IL-17家族成员之一,在组织炎症中发挥着关键作用[37]。IL-17A主要由TH17、γδT细胞、星形胶质细胞等免疫细胞产生,在缺血性卒中发生的早期阶段,促进中性粒细胞浸润并在神经元损伤中起着重要作用[38]。并且IL-17A在脑缺血后与内皮细胞的受体结合,加重神经元凋亡,从而诱导BBB破坏[39],进而导致卒中预后恶化。但在卒中恢复晚期阶段,Lin等发现在28天时IL-17A再次达到高峰,维持并增强侧脑室下区(SVZ)神经前体细胞(NPC)的存活能力,促进神经元分化及后续突触形成,从而改善卒中后功能恢复[40]。动物中风模型研究发现,丰富环境可激活星形胶质细胞中的NF-κB信号通路,促进IL-17A分泌,进而促进侧脑室下区神经前体细胞增殖并修复神经损伤[41]。一项临床观察研究发现,在第18至35天期间,IL-17A与格拉斯哥昏迷评分呈正相关,与美国国立卫生研究院卒中量表评分呈负相关,表明恢复阶段的IL-17A对神经保护和修复可能具有重要意义[42]

3.6. IL-10

IL-10在缺血性卒中发挥关键抗炎细胞因子的作用。缺血损伤后早期,内源性IL-10表达升高,并通过抑制PI3K/STAT3和NF-κB等信号通路,限制IL-1β、TNF-α和IFN-γ等促炎细胞因子的产生,从而抑制炎症级联反应,降低中性粒细胞、淋巴细胞的活化,从而减少继发性脑损伤,与较低的结构性神经损伤标志物水平相关[43]。动物模型显示,局部注射或增加IL-10水平可减小梗死体积、改善神经功能,表明IL-10具有抗炎作用,可减少继发神经损伤[44]。Sun等临床研究发现,IL-10血清水平降低与入院时临床严重程度及缺血性卒中患者功能预后不良独立相关[45]。但另一方面,在缺血性卒中亚急性期,随着炎症反应的逐渐演变和全身免疫反应调整,过度或持续升高的IL-10水平可能会导致脑卒中诱导的免疫抑制(SIDS) [46]。一些临床研究表明,高IL-10水平与免疫功能抑制、感染风险(如肺炎、泌尿道感染)增加相关,以至导致卒中后不良结局[47]。因此,IL-10在脑卒中的作用存在时间依赖性,其保护性和潜在不良效应反映了炎症反应的动态平衡。早期适度的IL-10表达有助于抑制炎症反应、保护脑组织,而过度或持续升高将导致免疫抑制或炎症失衡,与不良临床结局相关。这种双重作用提示我们在卒中治疗和生物标志物评估中,需综合考量IL-10的时间窗、表达水平及患者全身免疫状态的整体影响,而非简单地将其归类为有益或有害的单一因素。

3.7. TGFβ

TGF-β是一种多功能蛋白质,可以影响多种细胞的生长、分化、凋亡及免疫调节等功能。在脑卒中发生后数小时内,TGF-β水平逐渐升高,在第7天达到峰值,高水平的TGFβ在梗死脑中启动经典的Smad抗炎信号通路,发挥抗炎和神经保护作用,限制炎症扩散、减轻初始损伤并缩小梗死面积。同时活化星形胶质细胞和先天免疫细胞(小胶质细胞/巨噬细胞),将免疫反应导向修复性(M2c)表型,调控胶质瘢痕形成和参与组织修复与再生[48]。此时,若抑制TGFβ信号通路传导,将导致缺血损伤加剧[49]。但作为抗炎细胞因子的TGF-β,在动物实验中及观察性研究中发现,若其表达持续异常升高或予以治疗时作用时间过晚,则可能转向促进纤维化等有害过程,导致卒中后较差的功能结局[50]。可见,TGF-β在不同时机发挥的作用不尽相同,因此以TGF-β作为预后标志物或治疗用药靶点时,时间观可能确实至关重要,因为损伤后给药过晚可能无法限制梗死面积及细胞凋亡,同时增加纤维化风险并使结局恶化。

4. 中风免疫生物标志物的预后价值

急性缺血性脑卒中(AIS)后的免疫与炎症反应不仅是病理生理过程的核心组成部分,其相关免疫炎症标志物还为临床预后评价提供了重要的生物学信息。传统的卒中预后模型主要基于年龄、初始NIHSS评分、影像学特点及传统血管危险因素等指标,而纳入炎性生物标志物可显著提高这些模型的预测性能。Parket等人的研究表明,在急性期测定炎症性因子(如IL-6、TNF-α)与其它血液标志物联合加入临床模型中,可以显著提高其预测能力(AUROC从0.910提升至0.939) [51]。Ramiro等人基于941名急性缺血性脑卒中患者的前瞻性队列,分析了包括IL-6和TNF-R1等14种血液标志物在急性期对长期死亡的预测能力,并且发现将这些炎症标志物加入传统预测模型中可以显著提高模型的判别能力[52]。Zheng等[53]基于机器学习方法建立的脑卒中患者肺部感染模型显示,炎性因子具有稳健的预测性能。综上所述,越来越多的研究发现将免疫炎症标志物与现有预后模型联合应用,有助于更精确地预测卒中预后以及制定更恰当的治疗策略。

但同时我们也发现,相应免疫与炎症标志物在缺血性卒中的不同时间窗口中表现出复杂的双重作用,为卒中预后评估提供了更多维度的信息。在卒中急性期,IL-1β、TNF-α、IL-6、MMP-9等促炎因子迅速升高,促进血脑屏障破坏、白细胞浸润及炎性级联反应,导致早期神经损伤加重,与卒中后不良结局密切相关。同时,抗炎与免疫调节因子如IL-10和TGF-β在卒中亚急性期升高,发挥抑制过度炎症、促进损伤修复的作用,其高水平常与较小梗死体积和更佳恢复相关。但值得注意的是,上述免疫与炎症标志物在不同阶段发挥的作用具有时间依赖性,IL-1β、TNF-α、IL-6、IL-17A、MMP-9等促炎因子在卒中恢复期可能参与神经再生、血管发生等过程。IL-10和TGF-β具有抗炎与组织修复再生作用,但长期过度的免疫抑制将导致患者更易发生肺炎、尿路感染等感染性并发症,TGF-β作用时间过晚将导致组织纤维化,影响神经功能恢复。因此,在使用炎症因子预测卒中结局时,必须结合采样时间窗及动态变化趋势来解读这些生物标志物的临床意义。

将这些生物标志物与年龄、美国国立卫生研究院脑卒中量表(NIHSS)评分等已确立的因素整合到临床预测模型中,是研究的热点领域。此类模型的构建也有助于实现更密切的病情监测与更早期的靶向干预,从而改善患者预后。然而,尽管现有研究初步揭示了该类生物标志物的应用潜力,其向临床实践转化也面临诸多挑战:首先,我们缺乏标准化的检测方法。当前炎症因子的检测方式(如ELISA、流式细胞术)在灵敏度、特异性上存在显著差异,不同实验室和研究之间结果的异质性较高,从而影响不同研究之间的可比性和可重复性。已有研究指出,即使针对同一细胞因子,不同商业试剂盒之间的定量结果也可能存在数倍差异,这种分析差异性使不同研究之间的数据整合变得困难[54]。前处理过程如采血抗凝方式、离心条件、储存时间与温度同样会显著影响炎症因子的稳定性和检测结果。且目前多数炎症标志物缺乏统一的参考区间和最佳阈值,不同研究采用的检测标准差异较大,使得结果难以直接用于临床风险分层[55]。其次,炎症因子的表达水平具有明显的时间依赖性和阶段特异性。单时间点采样往往无法全面反映卒中后免疫炎症反应的动态变化,容易导致偏差。Sun等人在一项前瞻性队列研究中发现,入院即刻测得的IL-10水平较高与90 天良好功能结局和更低的死亡率显著相关[45]。Chang等研究报道,在48 小时后测得的较高IL-10水平与更严重的神经功能缺损及不良结局相关[56]。而在发病后2~7 天内的IL-10水平升高可能提示免疫抑制状态增强,从而增加感染等并发症风险,也与不良结局风险增加相关[46]。然而,现实临床环境中实施多时间点动态监测在成本、人力和技术上存在较大障碍。此外,大多证据仍停留在单中心、小样本的探索阶段,干预研究(如抗炎治疗、细胞因子阻断剂)多局限于动物模型或早期临床试验阶段,需要通过进一步的深入研究和临床验证,以明确这些生物标志物在卒中预后评估和治疗中更为精准的作用。最后,卒中患者常合并高血压、糖尿病、感染、肿瘤等多种基础疾病,这些共存疾病可显著影响外周炎症因子的水平。例如,糖尿病患者体内CRP、IL-6和TNF-α等炎症因子水平显著高于健康对照组,反应了该类患者本身存在慢性炎症状态。这种炎症背景使得在卒中事件中,区分卒中相关的炎症激活与共病驱动的慢性炎症变得复杂[57]。未来研究需要整合更全面的临床信息,构建高特异性的人群分层模型,以识别个体差异,实现精准医疗。

5. 总结与展望

综上所述,免疫和炎症生物标志物为缺血性脑卒中预后评估提供了重要信息,本文概述了免疫炎症反应在急性期与亚急性–慢性期的双重作用,以及同一免疫炎症因子在不同时间窗下的双重作用,有助于临床研究者与医生深入理解免疫指标在卒中后不同时期的意义。

但正因为免疫炎症机制的复杂性以及时间特异性,导致目前在动物模型中,多种抗炎治疗在改善缺血性脑卒中的神经损伤和功能结局方面表现出积极作用,但在临床试验中效果欠佳。首先,炎症反应具有明显的时间依赖性,动物研究中常在卒中发生后的极早期进行干预,而在临床中,多数患者在入院后已错过最佳治疗时间,导致治疗效果明显下降[56]。其次,脑卒中的炎症过程具有复杂性,而许多临床研究未对患者炎症状态进行分型,例如IL-6、TNF-α等因子在急性期促损伤、在亚急性期却可能促进修复,非特异性地抑制炎症或单独抑制某一条炎症通路将削弱其有益作用,导致疗效被减弱[58]。最后,动物实验中大多使用的是年轻、健康、无共病的模型,而临床患者往往伴有高龄、动脉粥样硬化、糖尿病等慢性炎症疾病,这些因素将改变免疫反应状态而影响药物治疗效果,因此动物实验的结果难以推广至复杂的临床实践中[59]。在目前的动物研究中,我们深入认识了卒中后免疫炎症反应的机制,但在转化为临床治疗之前,我们需要设计更加贴近人体病理状态的动物模型,以检测抗炎治疗的疗效。以及在临床研究中,我们需要对患者的炎症状态进行更加精准的分层,以实现精准治疗,提高药物的疗效。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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