线粒体在年龄相关性黄斑变性中的作用和 治疗新策略
The Role of Mitochondria in Age-Related Macular Degeneration and New Therapeutic Strategies
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2026.1631023, PDF, HTML, XML,    科研立项经费支持
作者: 曾慧娟:暨南大学第二临床医学院,广东 深圳;刘静雯, 卢怡洁:暨南大学附属深圳爱尔眼科医院,广东 深圳;刘东成:暨南大学附属深圳爱尔眼科医院,广东 深圳;爱尔眼科技术研究所,广东 深圳;秦 波*:暨南大学第二临床医学院,广东 深圳;暨南大学附属深圳爱尔眼科医院,广东 深圳;爱尔眼科技术研究所,广东 深圳
关键词: 线粒体年龄相关性黄斑变性视网膜色素上皮Mitochondria Age-Related Macular Degeneration RPE
摘要: 年龄相关性黄斑变性(AMD)是全球老年人不可逆性视力丧失的主要原因,其发病机制复杂。近年来,越来越多的证据表明,视网膜色素上皮(RPE)细胞的线粒体功能障碍是AMD驱动的核心环节。在衰老和环境因素(如氧化应激)的共同作用下,RPE细胞中线粒体DNA损伤、活性氧(ROS)过量产生、线粒体动力学失衡以及线粒体自噬功能衰退相互交织,形成恶性循环。本综述系统阐述了线粒体在AMD病理进程中的关键作用,关注其作为氧化应激的主要来源、细胞凋亡的启动者以及细胞内稳态调控中心等多重角色,展望了以线粒体为靶点的AMD治疗新策略。
Abstract: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of irreversible vision loss among the elderly worldwide, and its pathogenesis is complex. In recent years, increasing evidence has shown that mitochondrial dysfunction in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells is a central driver of AMD. Under the combined influence of aging and environmental factors such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial DNA damage, excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics, and decline in mitophagy in RPE cells intertwine to form a vicious cycle. This review systematically outlines the key role of mitochondria in the pathological progression of AMD, focusing on their multiple roles as major sources of oxidative stress, initiators of apoptosis, and regulators of cellular homeostasis, and explores novel AMD treatment strategies targeting mitochondria.
文章引用:曾慧娟, 刘静雯, 卢怡洁, 刘东成, 秦波. 线粒体在年龄相关性黄斑变性中的作用和 治疗新策略[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(3): 2284-2292. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.1631023

1. 引言

年龄相关性黄斑变性(AMD)是通过影响黄斑导致患者中心视力进行性下降的致盲性眼底疾病[1]。预计到2040年AMD患者人数将接近2.88亿,到2050年患病率将上升到15% [2] [3]。早期AMD主要特征是视网膜色素上皮(RPE)出现色素变化和/或硬小的玻璃膜疣[4];晚期AMD可表现为“干性”和“湿性”AMD两种形式。干性AMD (约占85%~90%)目前无法治疗,地图样萎缩(GA)是干性AMD的晚期阶段,它的特点是RPE、光感受器和脉络膜毛细血管的永久性丧失,最终导致视力严重下降。湿性AMD (约占10%~15%)的特点是血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)表达异常,脉络膜新生血管(CNV)形成,导致视网膜下出血、黄斑水肿和玻璃体内出血[5]

年龄是AMD最主要的危险因素,而吸烟、高体重指数、高血压、高血脂和遗传也是重要的危险因素。AMD是一种具有复杂病理变化的疾病,包括补体、脂质、血管生成、炎症和细胞外基质通路的失调,RPE功能障碍在其病理生理学中起着关键作用[4]。光感受器和RPE之间代谢的相互作用至关重要,RPE负责吸收过多的光以减少氧化应激、光感受器外部节段的周转、葡萄糖从脉络膜到光感受器的运输,以及VEGF的分泌[6],而线粒体作为细胞内氧化应激的主要来源和调控中心,其结构完整性和功能稳定性直接影响RPE细胞的功能,因此,RPE中的线粒体损伤是AMD变性的诱因。氧化应激和损伤是触发RPE变性的关键因素,这主要与线粒体中产生的过量活性氧(ROS)有关,而抗氧化机制可以防止ROS诱导的线粒体损伤和细胞死亡,从而增加RPE细胞的存活[7]

鉴于线粒体功能障碍在AMD发病机制中的关键推动作用及其在疾病进展中的影响,且目前需要寻找更有效的干预靶点来减少AMD的发生及延缓其进展,我们进行了这篇综述,总结线粒体在AMD中的作用,讨论线粒体作为预防或治疗AMD的治疗靶点。

2. 线粒体与AMD病理生理学

2.1. 线粒体结构及特点

线粒体是一种双膜结构(外膜和内膜)的细胞器,它们划分不同的隔室(膜间腔和基质腔)。外膜含有多种转运蛋白,对通过脂质双分子层的小分子(如氧、钙、糖)具有通透性。内膜富含心磷脂,内膜是电子传递和氧化磷酸化的部位[8]。心磷脂是一种带负电荷的脂质,可驱动带正电荷的分子通过外膜转运,是维持电子传递链(ETC)蛋白功能所必需的[9]。膜间腔是“离子驱动”的部位,氢离子被ETC复合体(I、III、IV)从基质中泵出而累积到这个隔室中。以上氢离子通过三磷酸腺苷合成酶回到基质中,产生三磷酸腺苷(ATP)。膜间腔也参与生成启动细胞凋亡的多种蛋白质,如凋亡诱导因子等。这些蛋白质从膜间腔释放到胞浆中,引发一系列事件,最终导致细胞凋亡和死亡[10]

2.2. 衰老视网膜中的线粒体

线粒体功能障碍与正常衰老以及多种与年龄相关的疾病有关。细胞衰老在发育、组织再生和预防肿瘤增殖的机制中很重要,但衰老细胞的积累是衰老过程的一个驱动因素,它与多种年龄相关疾病的发病机制有关,包括AMD [11]。许多研究报告了衰老过程中线粒体功能下降,包括氧化能力降低、OXPHOS减少、ATP产生减少[12]。在人类老化的视网膜中,RPE、神经节细胞、无长突细胞、水平细胞和视杆细胞都发现了细胞衰老变化:在玻璃膜疣周围可见明显的衰老RPE细胞的累积,而淀粉样蛋白(玻璃膜疣的一种成分)可诱导RPE衰老[13]。此外,N-视黄氨酸-N-视黄醇胺(A2E)是一种存在于脂褐素中的荧光团(在老化的RPE中积累)也可以通过破坏DNA和缩短端粒来诱导细胞衰老[14]。细胞衰老的另一个关键因素是衰老相关分泌表型(SASP),其中衰老细胞释放生长因子、细胞因子、趋化因子、蛋白酶等,诱导炎症和AMD的发展[15]

2.3. 线粒体功能障碍与AMD

线粒体功能障碍指线粒体在结构与基因的完整性、动力学稳态及质量调控等层面的功能失衡,通过炎症通路过度激活、破坏代谢生态系统稳态、有害蛋白聚集引发毒性反应等机制推动疾病发展。

2.3.1. 炎症通路过度激活

炎症是机体对危害细胞的因素作出的快速反应,如受损的大分子、功能失调的线粒体以及长期的氧化应激[16]。线粒体损伤和ROS的产生通过激活RPE细胞中的NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3 (NLRP3)信号通路而诱发炎症[17] [18]。由于衰老和AMD病理,自噬和抗氧化能力下降,导致受损线粒体的积累及其带来的有害影响,如ROS的产生和炎症小体的激活[19]。线粒体自噬是一种特殊形式的选择性自噬,为避免大量ROS产生以及进一步线粒体损伤和ROS释放的恶性循环,功能失调的线粒体必须通过线粒体自噬从细胞中清除[20]。线粒体裂变和自噬共同维持线粒体的功能,线粒体裂变增加会导致线粒体碎裂,而融合则会导致线粒体延长,线粒体中的任何过程发生异常都可能导致RPE变性[21]。具有自噬和线粒体功能障碍的退行性RPE细胞是组织中的危险物质,它们可以诱导周围巨噬细胞的炎症小体激活[22] [23]

研究表明,线粒体结构破坏的增加和线粒体DNA修复能力的降低与年龄呈正相关[24],对AMD患者捐献的视网膜组织的研究发现,RPE细胞中mtDNA突变(特别是4977-bp常见缺失)的数量显著高于年龄匹配的正常对照组[25]。当线粒体受损时,mtDNA可被释放到细胞质中。胞质mtDNA作为损伤相关分子模式(DAMP),被模式识别受体(如cGAS-STING通路)识别,从而启动炎症反应,促进干扰素和白细胞介素(如IL-6)等促炎因子的表达,这种由mtDNA触发的慢性低度炎症环境,是玻璃膜疣形成的重要推动力,并直接参与脉络膜新生血管(CNV)的病理过程[26] [27]

2.3.2. 有害蛋白聚集

线粒体功能障碍会直接影响到两个关键的蛋白质质量控制系统的运行:泛素–蛋白酶体系统(UPS)和自噬–溶酶体途径。UPS负责降解短寿命和错误折叠的蛋白质[28],而自噬负责清除受损的细胞器和蛋白质聚集体[29]。这两者的清除能力下降导致SQSTM1/p62等自噬受体蛋白堆积,后者通过激活炎症小体(如NLRP3)诱发视网膜慢性炎症[30] [31]。功能障碍的线粒体产生的过量的ROS会直接攻击蛋白质引起蛋白质侧链氧化、碳基化以及主链断裂,导致蛋白质结构破坏、功能丧失并易于形成不可溶的寡聚体或聚集体[32],它们的积累干扰细胞器功能并可能直接引发毒性反应;受损的RPE细胞会分泌淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)等具有聚集倾向的蛋白质,进而成为玻璃膜疣的核心骨架[33]。综上所述,线粒体功能障碍破坏RPE细胞的蛋白质稳态,这导致有害蛋白质在细胞内(毒性聚集体)和细胞外(玻璃膜疣)异常聚集,并激活慢性炎症,共同推动了AMD的发生与发展。

2.3.3. “代谢生态系统”破坏

最近的研究主要集中在RPE和视网膜之间的代谢依赖关系,即“代谢生态系统”。视网膜光感受器利用葡萄糖通过糖酵解作用产生ATP,而RPE主要依靠线粒体氧化磷酸化来产生满足其高代谢需求的能量[34]。然而,线粒体功能障碍迫使RPE依靠葡萄糖和糖酵解来供应其能量需求,打破了“代谢生态系统”,导致细胞饥饿和死亡,加速AMD的进展[35]

钙离子稳态也在“代谢生态系统”中起重要作用:Ca2+经MCU复合体进入线粒体基质可激活限速酶促进ATP合成,同时通过钠钙交换体(NCLX)介导外排避免钙超载[36] [37];而长期氧化应激会削弱MCU的Ca2+摄取效率、下调NCLX表达,引发线粒体钙超载,进而导致线粒体通透性转换孔(mPTP)持续开放、线粒体肿胀破裂,并激活细胞色素C等凋亡因子诱发细胞凋亡[38] [39]

3. 线粒体相关治疗

口服、滴眼液、玻璃体腔注射是目前AMD治疗中最常用的三种给药方式,其在靶向RPE线粒体治疗中的优劣差异显著,核心取决于药物跨BRB (血视网膜屏障)效率、局部药物浓度及安全性,口服药物及滴眼液需跨越BRB,富集于RPE细胞的效率较低,部分亲脂性药物滴眼液可通过角膜/结膜渗透至视网膜外层,这两种方式无创、患者依从性高,适用于早期AMD预防或中晚期联合玻璃体腔注射治疗[40];玻璃体腔注射可结合缓释载体(如聚乳酸微球、明胶海绵)修饰线粒体靶向药物,药物可直接扩散至视网膜各层,是目前中晚期AMD线粒体靶向治疗的首选给药方式[41]

3.1. 改善线粒体能量代谢

3.1.1. 补充线粒体代谢物前体

血烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(NAD+)作为线粒体能量代谢的核心辅酶,随年龄而下降,补充烟酰胺单核苷酸(NMN)、烟酰胺核糖(NR)等NAD+前体可通过提升NAD+水平,激活Sirtuins去乙酰化酶家族,增强线粒体生物合成和功能,改善细胞能量状态[42]

3.1.2. 调节线粒体呼吸链功能

吡咯喹啉醌(PQQ)等生物活性化合物已被证明可以通过激活过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ共激活因子1α (PGC-1α)信号通路来改善线粒体呼吸[43],其改善ATP水平的效果优于NMN等前体物质[44]

3.2. 增强线粒体抗氧化能力

3.2.1. 线粒体靶向递送抗氧化剂(MTA)

传统抗氧化剂(如维生素C/E)因难以穿透线粒体双层膜而疗效受限,靶向修饰技术实现了抗氧化作用的精准定位[45]。三苯基膦(TPP+)是目前最成熟的线粒体靶向基团,其核心作用原理为:TPP+带有高度亲脂性的正电荷,细胞膜(−30至−60 mV)与内线粒体膜(−150至−180 mV)之间的电化学梯度,为亲脂阳离子积累到线粒体提供了极大动力,通过静电引力将连接的抗氧化剂分子主动富集到线粒体基质中,富集效率可达胞质的100~1000倍[46]。目前已开发的MitoQ、MitoTEMPO均以TPP+为靶向基团,分别将辅酶Q10、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)模拟物与TPP+偶联,实现线粒体ROS的精准清除[47]。Visomitin滴眼液是第一种也是迄今为止唯一一种基于SkQ1的药物(线粒体靶向抗氧化剂质体醌基癸基三苯基膦),SkQ1以癸基三苯基膦为靶向基团,兼具TPP+的线粒体靶向性和更优的亲脂性,可通过角膜上皮渗透至视网膜外层,抑制OXYS大鼠AMD样病理的进展,其作用机制与抑制P38 MAPK和ERK1/2信号通路活性有关[48],也有研究表明其通过降低Aβ水平和抑制视网膜中mTOR的活性来延缓衰老[49]

麦角硫因(EGT)则通过OCTN1转运蛋白直接穿透线粒体膜,清除羟基自由基等活性物种,保护mtDNA完整性,被称为“线粒体特异性抗氧化剂”[50]。研究表明体外RPE细胞和体内小鼠视网膜组织中有效减轻SI诱导的严重氧化损伤和细胞死亡[51],但未来需要对其分子机制、长期毒性和临床试验进行广泛的研究,有望成为治疗AMD的新型抗氧化剂。

3.2.2. 激活内源性抗氧化通路

Keap1-Nrf2-ARE通路是调控细胞抗氧化稳态的核心枢纽。在正常情况下,Nrf2与Keap1结合,转移到细胞核,与ARE结合并介导一系列抗氧化蛋白基因 [52]。多苯磺酸钙(CaD)、多酚、α-硫辛酸(ALA)、叶黄素/玉米黄质异构体(L/Zi)、香豆素和桧木醇均可通过激活Nrf2通路,提升RPE细胞的抗氧化能力[53]-[56]。此外,桧木醇抑制DNA片段化并减轻自噬功能障碍,从而有助于维持细胞稳态[57]

3.3. 促进线粒体质量控制

3.3.1. 激活线粒体自噬

有研究利用AMD小鼠模型发现,尿石素A可能有助于防止与AMD相关的视觉功能丧失,它可以帮助细胞回收受损的溶酶体,而溶酶体负责帮助分解和回收其他细胞部分[58]。二甲双胍可以通过激活AMPK途径刺激自噬,从而保护RPE细胞免受H2O2诱导的氧化损伤,流行病学研究表明,服用二甲双胍的糖尿病患者患AMD的风险较低[59] [60]

3.3.2. 改善线粒体代谢环境

褪黑激素可以通过靶向MT2/SERCA2轴抑制SI (碘酸钠)引发的ER应激和细胞内钙过载,并恢复线粒体膜电位和抑制NLRP3炎症小体激活[61]。线粒体衍生肽如人道素(HN)能够抑制线粒体膜通透性转换孔(mPTP)的开放,从而抑制细胞凋亡[62]

3.4. 基因治疗与干细胞治疗

3.4.1. 线粒体靶向基因治疗

基因治疗是一种通过修饰受体细胞或组织中有缺陷的DNA来达到预期治疗效果的方法,目前,AMD的基因治疗主要集中在利用载体系统表达可阻断VEGF通路的抗血管生成蛋白[63],靶向线粒体的基因治疗也引起了关注。视网膜下注射腺相关病毒(AAV)载体递送的NADH-泛醌氧化还原酶(ophNdi1)在NaIO3诱导的干性AMD小鼠模型中被证明可以降低ROS水平、改善线粒体形态和线粒体功能[64]。将mtDNA编码基因(如ND4)进行重新设计,为其添加核表达所需的信号肽和线粒体靶向序列,然后整合到AAV载体中。当该基因在细胞核中表达后,其产物可以被运输到线粒体并整合到线粒体复合物中,从而恢复其功能[65],这种策略已在Leber遗传性视神经病变(LHON)的临床试验中取得成功,为治疗同样涉及线粒体复合物缺陷的AMD提供了概念验证。

3.4.2. 干细胞移植改善线粒体功能

移植健康的RPE细胞(来源于诱导多能干细胞iPSC或胚胎干细胞ESC)替代萎缩的RPE层,是治疗地理样萎缩(GA)的可行策略。临床研究表明,iPSC-RPE移植相对安全,局部类固醇控制的排斥反应极小,尽管存在轻微免疫反应或视网膜前膜形成等轻微并发症,但移植物仍能保持稳定至少1年,移植后显示出视力稳定或适度改善[66],但晚期AMD患者的Bruch’s膜通常已经老化、增厚并伴有沉积物,这为移植的RPE细胞附着、存活和发挥功能提供了一个不良的“土壤”[67],故尽管干细胞对AMD的视网膜再生有效,但它们的使用受到伦理和免疫学问题的限制,需要进一步的研究来完善细胞来源、分化方法和移植技术,以确保持久和安全的临床结果。

3.5. 中医药成分的线粒体保护作用

多种中药活性成分被证实具有多靶点线粒体保护效应。例如,姜黄素的化学结构使其能够直接中和ROS;二是其通过激活Nrf2诱导抗氧化酶的表达[68];白藜芦醇可以提升SIRT3活性,促进线粒体呼吸链复合体去乙酰化修饰,增强能量代谢效率[69]。这些成分通过多途径协同作用,展现了在AMD防治中的独特价值,但其具体靶点和临床疗效需进一步验证。

4. 总结与展望

线粒体作为一种重要的细胞器,通过多种机制参与调节正常视网膜活动和AMD的病理过程,目前,针对线粒体靶向的AMD干预策略虽已在机制研究层面展现出良好潜力,但相关研究大多仍停留在细胞与动物实验阶段,靶向线粒体的药物递送效率优化、治疗靶点的特异性验证以及临床转化研究的缺乏等问题,仍是制约该方向发展的关键瓶颈。未来,随着对线粒体调控网络与AMD病理机制关系研究的不断深入,结合新型靶向递送技术、基因编辑手段的创新应用,有望研发出更具特异性与安全性的线粒体靶向治疗药物。希望在不久的将来,这些研究成果能够顺利实现临床转化,为AMD患者提供全新的治疗方案,减轻AMD对全球人群视力健康的威胁。

基金项目

湖南省自然科学基金项目(2021JJ30045);湖南省湘江公益基金会科研基金项目;爱尔眼科医院集团科研基金项目(编号:AGF2301D29, AGF2301D33, AGF2301D34)。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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