儿童异基因造血干细胞移植后巨细胞病毒感染的治疗进展
Treatment Advances for Cytomegalovirus Infection after Pediatric Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2026.1631088, PDF, HTML, XML,   
作者: 张继源, 张志勇*:重庆医科大学附属儿童医院临床研究科,儿童少年健康与疾病国家临床医学研究中心,儿童发育疾病研究教育部重点实验室,儿童感染与免疫罕见病重庆市重点实验室,重庆
关键词: 异基因造血干细胞移植巨细胞病毒来特莫韦马立巴韦Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Cytomegalovirus Letermovir Maribavir
摘要: 异基因造血干细胞移植(allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, allo-HSCT)是儿童多种血液系统疾病、免疫出生缺陷等疾病的根治手段。预处理方案、移植物抗宿主病的防治及免疫功能重建延迟等多种因素导致的免疫抑制,使巨细胞病毒(cytomegalovirus, CMV)感染风险显著升高,严重影响患儿预后。本文综述了儿童allo-HSCT后CMV感染的治疗进展。更昔洛韦、膦甲酸钠等传统抗病毒药物仍是临床基础治疗选择,随着来特莫韦获批用于儿童群体,推动CMV管理从“抢先治疗”为主转向“预防联合抢先治疗”的综合模式;马立巴韦为难治性、耐药性CMV感染提供了更多治疗选择。未来需进一步积累新型药物的儿科临床数据,探索免疫监测在治疗策略指导中的应用,进一步改善患儿长期预后。
Abstract: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is a curative treatment for various hematological diseases, inborn errors of immunity (IEI), and other disorders in children. Immunosuppression resulting from conditioning regimens, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis and treatment, and delayed immune reconstitution significantly increases the risk of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, severely impairing outcomes in pediatric patients. This article reviews recent advances in the treatment of CMV infection following allo-HSCT in children. Conventional antiviral agents such as ganciclovir and foscarnet remain the fundamental therapeutic options. The recent approval of letermovir for pediatric use has shifted CMV management from preemptive therapy-based strategies to a comprehensive approach combining prophylaxis and preemptive treatment. Maribavir provides additional therapeutic options for refractory and drug-resistant CMV infections. Future efforts should focus on accumulating pediatric clinical data for novel agents and exploring the application of immune monitoring in guiding therapeutic strategies, aiming to further improve long-term outcomes in this population.
文章引用:张继源, 张志勇. 儿童异基因造血干细胞移植后巨细胞病毒感染的治疗进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(3): 2860-2868. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.1631088

1. 引言

异基因造血干细胞移植(allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, allo-HSCT)是治疗儿童多种血液系统疾病、免疫出生缺陷、遗传代谢性疾病的根治性手段。尽管该技术可实现造血与免疫重建,但预处理方案导致的免疫抑制、移植物抗宿主病(graft-versus-host disease, GVHD)的防治需求,以及儿童自身免疫功能重建延迟等因素,使机会性感染的发生风险显著升高。其中,巨细胞病毒(cytomegalovirus, CMV)是威胁儿童患者预后的主要病原体,不仅感染发生率高,还可能引发肺炎、视网膜炎等严重并发症,影响移植成功率与患儿远期生存质量。

本综述聚焦儿童allo-HSCT后CMV感染的监测手段、临床管理策略以及抗CMV药物的应用要点,为儿童allo-HSCT后CMV感染的临床管理提供参考。

2. 流行病学特征

CMV在全球范围内流行广泛,普通人群中血清学阳性率为83% [1]。同时它也是儿童allo-HSCT后最常见的病毒感染。在西班牙的一项多中心前瞻性研究[2]中,对137例移植后的患儿进行了移植后一年的病毒感染监测,发现CMV感染为移植后最常见的病毒感染。感染多发生在移植后早期,一般在移植后100天内[3]。Lin等[4]针对中国人群的系统评价与Meta分析显示,我国造血干细胞移植受者CMV感染的整体发生率是49.9%;在儿童亚组中,基于9项研究1291例患儿的合并分析结果显示,儿童感染率是38.92% (95% CI: 26.14%~52.49%)。不同研究中心报道的感染率存在差异,提示临床中存在多种可能影响感染发生的关键因素。

3. 移植后巨细胞病毒感染的危险因素与结局影响

明确儿童allo-HSCT后CMV感染的高危因素,是制定个体化防治策略的前提。结合国内外多项大型临床研究,移植后CMV感染的高危因素包括:移植年龄较大、移植前CMV血清学阳性、急性GVHD、HSCT供体来源和移植后接受免疫抑制治疗措施等[5]-[9]。CMV感染或再激活是HSCT后常见且严重的并发症,可导致CMV血症,继而引发肺炎、视网膜炎等CMV疾病。此外,CMV感染的间接影响包括GVHD、机会性感染或移植失败,这些负面影响可能降低患者生存率并导致非复发死亡率增加[10]

4. 诊断技术与监测策略

不同CMV诊断技术在危险评估、感染早期识别及动态监测中发挥着不同作用。传统诊断方法包括抗原检测、病毒培养、病理组织学检查。抗原检测因操作繁琐已被PCR技术替代。病毒培养因敏感性低、耗时久,目前已极少用于临床常规监测。病理组织学检查如观察到组织细胞内具有“鹰眼征”特征的CMV包涵体,可作为CMV疾病确诊的金标准,但该检查属于有创操作,仅推荐用于高度怀疑存在CMV疾病的高风险儿童患者。当前临床主流CMV诊断技术包括抗体检测、聚合酶链反应检测,二者分别侧重移植前风险评估与移植后感染动态监测。此外,目前还有一种可作为临床参考的检测手段:巨细胞病毒特异性细胞免疫(Cytomegalovirus cell-mediated immunity, CMV-CMI)检测,该方法虽在临床应用中逐渐增多,但多局限于实验室层面开展免疫功能评估,尚未形成统一的检测标准化流程与规范指南。

4.1. CMV抗体监测

移植前受者的CMV血清状态是HSCT后CMV感染最重要的预测因素[11],也是供体选择关键标准之一。受者与供体的CMV血清学状态会显著影响HSCT的临床结局[12]。但该检测存在一定的局限性,移植受者在被动输入抗体或免疫球蛋白生成不足的情况下可能出现假阳性或假阴性检测结果,进而影响合适的CMV预防策略的制定。既往多项回顾性研究[13]-[15]发现采集时间接近HSCT的样本可能导致血清阳性率高估约12%~25%。因此,欧洲白血病感染会议(ECIL10) [16]建议应在基础疾病确诊时和移植前分别评估巨细胞病毒抗体状态以提高评估准确性。

4.2. CMV PCR检测

定量核酸检测是allo-HSCT受者CMV感染的首选监测技术,可早期发现感染、动态监测病毒载量变化、评估治疗反应。移植后应每周进行至少1次CMV DNA监测,连续监测需保持标本类型(全血/血浆)一致,至少持续至移植后100天[16]。有研究显示血浆病毒DNA载量倍增时间少于2天可作为抢先治疗启动信号[17] [18],基于该指标适时启动抢先治疗,可缩短总体抗病毒治疗时间、降低药物相关副作用及治疗费用,并防止CMV疾病发生[17]

4.3. 巨细胞病毒特异性细胞免疫检测

CMV-CMI检测是评估机体抗CMV特异性免疫应答的重要手段。其原理为体外采用CMV肽段或感染细胞的裂解物刺激初始T细胞,再通过酶联免疫吸附测定(ELISA)、酶联免疫斑点测定(ELISpot)或流式细胞术(FACS)来量化特异性免疫反应强度。目前多项研究证实CMV-CMI重建与CMV再激活的自发清除相关[19] [20]。Seo等[21]对52例儿科allo-HSCT患者的研究显示,移植后CMV-CMI功能良好对CMV感染具有保护作用。在临床实践中,CMV-CMI有望成为CMV再激活的潜在预测标志,辅助判断低水平CMV病毒血症的治疗及CMV感染的二级预防需求,实现个体化治疗方案的制定进而减少对预防性或抢先治疗药物的需求。但目前该技术存在诸多局限性:检测缺乏标准化流程、不同方法结果一致性欠佳、特异性免疫应答临界值尚未确定,且基于CMV-CMI评估的干预策略尚未得到随机干预性临床试验的支持。因此,现有证据下该技术仅作为临床参考选项,其临床价值仍需进一步研究明确。

5. HSCT后CMV感染的临床管理策略

HSCT后CMV感染的临床管理策略主要分为三类:预防治疗、抢先治疗以及难治性/耐药性CMV感染的治疗。

5.1. 预防治疗

预防治疗指对有CMV感染风险但无活动性感染的患者使用抗病毒药物阻断感染发生或进展。在感染发生前实施的预防为一级预防,在抢先治疗后或CMV DNA血症清除后防止感染复发的治疗为二级预防。早期临床研究[22]尝试将抢先治疗策略中有效的药物更昔洛韦及膦甲酸钠用于预防性治疗,结果显示药物相关毒性增加,获益有限。随着来特莫韦在儿童群体中获批应用,儿童HSCT后CMV预防治疗发生变革性进展。欧洲白血病感染会议(ECIL10) [16]建议将来特莫韦(Letermovir)作为CMV血清阳性allo-HSCT受者进行CMV初级预防的首选药物,疗程至少持续至移植后100天。对于CMV感染高风险患者,疗程可延续至移植后200天。关于来特莫韦用于二级预防的临床数据有限,但一些小样本回顾性病例研究报告显示其具有良好的安全性及疗效[23]-[25]。临床上需结合患儿的具体情况如CMV-CMI、是否接受免疫抑制治疗、是否合并GVHD综合评估,以确定是否进行二级预防。

5.2. 抢先治疗

抢先治疗是历史上预防CMV疾病的核心策略,该方法依赖于严格监测CMV DNA水平,并在病毒载量超过阈值时启动抗病毒治疗,可有效防止临床CMV疾病的发生,并减少治疗时间,最大限度地减少医源性毒性,尤其是骨髓抑制和肾功能损害。抢先治疗的启动阈值尚无统一标准,需结合各中心检测技术特点、供受者CMV血清学状态、GVHD发生情况及免疫抑制强度等综合决定。一项HSCT患儿的单中心回顾性研究[26]显示,在CMV病毒载量 ≥ 1000 IU/mL时启动抢先治疗,病毒载量的峰值显著升高、病毒血症时间延长。

静脉注射更昔洛韦或膦甲酸钠可作为一线抢先治疗药物[16],无严重肠道GVHD的患儿,可选用缬更昔洛韦替代。治疗持续时间至少应为2周。目前对于何时终止抢先治疗尚未达成共识。对于高灵敏度的检测方法应至少获得一次CMV检测阴性结果,或间隔1周的连续两次CMV载量检测结果低于检测下限即可停药[16]。在抗病毒治疗最初2周内出现CMV DNA载量升高无需调整治疗方案。若治疗2周后仍检测到CMV,可考虑调整为每日一次的抗病毒维持治疗。对于病毒载量下降缓慢的患者,可能需要重复进行抢先治疗或延长初始抢先治疗周期[12]

5.3. 难治/耐药CMV感染的治疗

2024年移植相关感染论坛更新了关于难治性/耐药性CMV感染定义[27]。难治性CMV感染指在至少2周的适当抗病毒治疗后,CMV载量仍升高或持续存在的情况。耐药性CMV感染是指在符合难治性CMV感染诊断的基础上,有特定的基因突变导致CMV对1种或多种治疗药物的敏感性下降。

对于CMV反复感染或对更昔洛韦及膦甲酸钠反应不佳,临床怀疑有难治性或耐药CMV感染时,建议完善CMV耐药基因分型检测,考虑更换抗病毒药物类别,并尽可能减少免疫抑制剂的使用强度。后续策略需根据耐药突变类型(UL97/UL54)及耐药程度制定。从耐药机制来看,CMV基因型耐药与特定药物的对应关系已较为明确,CMV基因型耐药主要涉及UL97磷酸转移酶基因突变,导致对更昔洛韦耐药;UL54 DNA聚合酶突变可能引起对更昔洛韦、膦甲酸和西多福韦耐药[28],而UL56病毒亚基基因突变则与来特莫韦耐药相关[29]

膦甲酸和更昔洛韦仍是治疗儿童难治性/复发性CMV感染/疾病的一线治疗选择。对CMV感染一线抗病毒都耐药后,对于12岁及以上、体重至少35 kg的患者,可首选马立巴韦治疗,建议采用马立巴韦治疗难治性/复发性CMV感染的标准剂量[30]。对于12岁以下儿童,需谨慎使用马立巴韦,仍需要更多临床数据来确定合适的剂量。

抗CMV药物联合治疗可作为难治性或耐药性CMV感染的二线或三线治疗选择,其基本原理是通过靶向CMV的多个复制位点来增强抗病毒效果,并防止可能与单药治疗相关的CMV耐药菌株的产生。临床中最常用的联合方案是更昔洛韦联合膦甲酸钠。需注意的是,马立巴韦与缬更昔洛韦、更昔洛韦因作用机制存在拮抗,临床中不建议联用。目前尚无明确证据证实联合治疗的疗效优于单药治疗,仅考虑用于感染难以控制的病例[16]

6. 常用抗病毒药物

临床常用抗CMV药物包括传统药物及新型药物。传统药物仍是临床基础治疗选择,但存在明显毒性局限;新型药物凭借独特作用机制与良好安全性,丰富了儿童allo-HSCT后CMV感染的治疗选择。表1汇总了儿童HSCT受者CMV感染的防治药物。

Table 1. Prevention and treatment of CMV infection in children with HSCT

1. 儿童HSCT受者CMV感染的防治药物

药物名称

作用机制

剂量

主要副作用

CMV耐药基因

更昔洛韦

UL54

静脉注射,5 mg/kg,每12小时1次

骨髓抑制、转氨酶升高

UL97、UL54

缬更昔洛韦

UL54

口服,16 mg/kg/次,最大剂量900 mg,每日2次;

骨髓抑制、转氨酶升高

UL97、UL54

膦甲酸钠

UL54

静脉注射,90 mg/kg,每12小时1次

肾毒性、电解质紊乱、 胃肠道反应

UL54

西多福韦

UL54

静脉注射,5 mg/kg,每周1次,联合丙磺舒预防肾毒性

肾毒性、骨髓抑制

UL54

来特莫韦

UL56、UL51、 UL89

口服/静脉注射,每日1次,剂量详见表2

胃肠道反应

UL56

马立巴韦

UL97

口服,400 mg,每日2次

胃肠道反应

UL97

6.1. 新型抗CMV药物

6.1.1. 来特莫韦

来特莫韦作为全球首个CMV-DNA末端酶复合物(pUL51、pUL56和pUL89)特异性抑制剂,并不直接作用于病毒DNA合成环节,而是通过靶向病毒复制的终末阶段,阻断病毒DNA的裂解与包装过程,从而抑制巨细胞病毒复制。因此用药早期可能在外周血中检测到碎片化巨细胞病毒DNA,表现为短暂的低载量CMV血症[31]。需密切监测病毒载量,自限性病毒血症无需停用来特莫韦。仅当连续检测显示载量快速升高时考虑调整方案[16]

基于一项纳入63名2个月至18岁以下儿童IIb期多中心开放标签单臂研究[32],来特莫韦在儿科人群中的药代动力学特征与安全性得到充分验证。在此基础上,美国FDA将该药的应用范围扩展至儿童群体,我国国家药品监督管理局也于2025年批准其儿童适应症,明确用于体重 ≥ 6公斤、年龄 ≥ 6个月的血清学阳性的儿童HSCT受者。目前,来特莫韦有片剂、口服颗粒剂和静脉注射剂三种剂型,为儿科造血干细胞移植后CMV预防提供了新的治疗选择。华中科技大学同济医学院附属同济医院团队开展的回顾性研究[33]对106例CMV再激活高危儿童患者的分析显示,接受来特莫韦预防的44例患者中,移植后100天内临床显著CMV感染发生率仅为11.3%,远低于未接受来特莫韦预防的对照组(64.5%, P < 0.001),且未出现CMV终末器官疾病(对照组发生率为12.9%,P = 0.020)。安全性方面,来特莫韦不影响儿童患者的粒系与血小板植入时间,所有患者均耐受良好,无因不良反应停药案例,充分证实了其在儿童人群中应用的显著疗效与良好安全性。儿童给药建议详见表2

Table 2. Suggestions on Letermovir administration in children with HSCT

2. 儿童HSCT受者来特莫韦给药建议

患儿体重

未联用环孢素时剂量

联用环孢素时剂量

静脉用药

口服用药

静脉用药

口服用药

≥30 kg

480 mg

480 mg

240 mg

240 mg

15 kg~30 kg

120 mg

240 mg

120 mg

120 mg

7.5 kg~15 kg

60 mg

120 mg

60 mg

60 mg

6 kg~7.5 kg

40 mg

80 mg

40 mg

40 mg

6.1.2. 马立巴韦

马立巴韦是CMV pUL97激酶的竞争性抑制剂,其通过阻止CMV-DNA复制发挥作用,其作用机制与其他抗CMV药物存在本质差异,不影响UL54 DNA聚合酶活性,也非UL97蛋白激酶的磷酸化底物,因此与传统药物及来特莫韦均无交叉耐药性,是难治性/耐药CMV感染的重要补救药物。

目前儿科数据匮乏,主要基于少量病例报告[34]。基于药代动力学模拟研究[35],美国FDA及中国国家药品监督管理局已批准马立巴韦用于治疗12岁及以上、体重至少35 kg的儿童患者,在造血干细胞移植或实体器官移植后出现的巨细胞病毒(CMV)感染/疾病,且对更昔洛韦、缬更昔洛韦、西多福韦或膦甲酸钠等常规治疗药物产生耐药(无论是否检测出基因型耐药)的情况。一项针对0~18岁儿童的III期多中心试验(NCT05319353)正在进行,旨在评估马立巴韦的安全性与耐受性,并确定其药代动力学特征。马立巴韦中枢神经系统穿透力差,疑似或确诊CMV视网膜炎或脑炎者应避免使用[36]

7. 病毒特异性T细胞的临床应用

尽管抗病毒治疗可显著降低HSCT后CMV感染相关并发症风险,但免疫缺陷患儿CMV长期控制依赖于病毒特异性免疫重建。对于复发/难治性CMV感染或疾病的儿童患者,可以考虑采取病毒特异性T细胞(virus-specific T cell, VST)疗法。既往研究已证实供者来源VST疗法可有效治疗难治性病毒感染[37],但其制备周期长、成本高,难以满足临床急症需求。而第三方来源VST可从冷冻细胞库中快速获取,既往以成人患者为研究对象的多个研究表明第三方来源VST抗CMV疗效及免疫重建能力与供者来源VST相当[38] [39],一项多中心II期ACES试验[40] (NCT03475212)进一步验证了其在儿科难治性CMV感染中的可行性与有效性,HSCT后患者1个月应答率达73%。需注意的是,有研究显示第三方 VST在体内存续时间有限[41],大剂量糖皮质激素(泼尼松龙 > 1 mg/kg)、GVHD等因素可能影响其功能及疗效[40]

8. 展望

儿童allo-HSCT后CMV感染的临床管理已取得显著进展,随着来特莫韦在儿童中的获批,CMV管理已从“抢先治疗为主”转向“预防联合抢先治疗”的综合模式。马立巴韦为难治性/耐药性CMV感染提供了更多选择。未来需积累儿童的新型药物数据及不同临床场景下的治疗经验,探索将免疫监测整合至治疗策略,如辅助确定预防疗程等,以改善儿童HSCT受者的长期预后。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

参考文献

[1] Zuhair, M., Smit, G.S.A., Wallis, G., et al. (2019) Estimation of the Worldwide Seroprevalence of Cytomegalovirus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Reviews in Medical Virology, 29, e2034.
[2] Verdeguer, A., de Heredia, C.D., González, M., Martínez, A.M., Fernández-Navarro, J.M., Pérez-Hurtado, J.M., et al. (2010) Observational Prospective Study of Viral Infections in Children Undergoing Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation: A 3-Year GETMON Experience. Bone Marrow Transplantation, 46, 119-124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[3] Wu, J., Ma, H., Lu, C., Chen, J., Lee, P., Jou, S., et al. (2017) Risk Factors and Outcomes of Cytomegalovirus Viremia in Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Patients. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, 50, 307-313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[4] Lin, R., Wu, J. and Liu, Q. (2025) Epidemiology, Clinical Outcomes, and Treatment Patterns of Cytomegalovirus Infection after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in China: A Scoping Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, Article ID: 1518275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[5] Jaing, T., Chang, T., Chen, S., Wen, Y., Yu, T., Lee, C., et al. (2019) Factors Associated with Cytomegalovirus Infection in Children Undergoing Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem-Cell Transplantation. Medicine, 98, e14172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[6] Heston, S.M., Young, R.R., Tanaka, J.S., Jenkins, K., Vinesett, R., Saccoccio, F.M., et al. (2021) Risk Factors for CMV Viremia and Treatment-Associated Adverse Events among Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Open Forum Infectious Diseases, 9, ofab639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[7] Wen, Y., Wang, Y., Chang, T., Hsiao, Y., Yang, Y., Chen, S., et al. (2024) Comparison of Cytomegalovirus Reactivation in Children after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation in 2 Transplant Eras. Transplantation Proceedings, 56, 1878-1884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[8] Ferrando, G., Bagnasco, F., Giardino, S., Pierri, F., Pestarino, S., Di Marco, E., et al. (2024) Monitoring and Management of Cytomegalovirus Reactivations after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Children: Experience from a Single Pediatric Center. Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland), 14, Article No. 2461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[9] 中华医学会血液学分会干细胞应用学组. 异基因造血干细胞移植患者巨细胞病毒感染管理中国专家共识(2022年版) [J]. 中华血液学杂志, 2022, 43(8): 617-623.
[10] Teira, P., Battiwalla, M., Ramanathan, M., Barrett, A.J., Ahn, K.W., Chen, M., et al. (2016) Early Cytomegalovirus Reactivation Remains Associated with Increased Transplant-Related Mortality in the Current Era: A CIBMTR Analysis. Blood, 127, 2427-2438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[11] Hakki, M., Aitken, S.L., Danziger-Isakov, L., Michaels, M.G., Carpenter, P.A., Chemaly, R.F., et al. (2021) American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy Series: #3—Prevention of Cytomegalovirus Infection and Disease after Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation. Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, 27, 707-719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[12] Ljungman, P., de la Camara, R., Robin, C., Crocchiolo, R., Einsele, H., Hill, J.A., et al. (2019) Guidelines for the Management of Cytomegalovirus Infection in Patients with Haematological Malignancies and after Stem Cell Transplantation from the 2017 European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia (ECIL 7). The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 19, e260-e272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[13] Portillo, V., Masouridi-Levrat, S., Royston, L., Yerly, S., Schibler, M., Mappoura, M., et al. (2023) Revisiting Cytomegalovirus Serology in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplant Recipients. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 78, 423-429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[14] Sayyed, A., Wilson, L., Stavi, V., Chen, S., Chen, C., Mattsson, J., et al. (2024) Impact of Cytomegalovirus (cmv) Seroconversion Pre‐Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation on Posttransplant Outcomes. European Journal of Haematology, 113, 441-453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[15] Morton, S., Danby, R., Rocha, V., Peniket, A. and Murphy, M.F. (2015) Transfusion of CMV‐Unselected Blood Components May Lead to Inappropriate Donor Selection for Patients Subsequently Undergoing Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplant. Transfusion Medicine, 25, 411-413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[16] Ljungman, P., Alain, S., Chemaly, R.F., Einsele, H., Galaverna, F., Hirsch, H.H., et al. (2025) Recommendations from the 10th European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia for the Management of Cytomegalovirus in Patients after Allogeneic Haematopoietic Cell Transplantation and Other T-Cell-Engaging Therapies. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 25, e451-e462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[17] Solano, C., Giménez, E., Piñana, J.L., Vinuesa, V., Poujois, S., Zaragoza, S., et al. (2015) Preemptive Antiviral Therapy for CMV Infection in Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients Guided by the Viral Doubling Time in the Blood. Bone Marrow Transplantation, 51, 718-721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[18] Giménez, E., Muñoz-Cobo, B., Solano, C., Amat, P. and Navarro, D. (2014) Early Kinetics of Plasma Cytomegalovirus DNA Load in Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients in the Era of Highly Sensitive Real-Time PCR Assays: Does It Have Any Clinical Value? Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 52, 654-656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[19] Lilleri, D., Gerna, G., Zelini, P., Chiesa, A., Rognoni, V., Mastronuzzi, A., et al. (2012) Monitoring of Human Cytomegalovirus and Virus-Specific T-Cell Response in Young Patients Receiving Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. PLOS ONE, 7, e41648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[20] Lee, S., Kim, Y., Yoo, K.H., Sung, K.W., Koo, H.H. and Kang, E. (2017) Clinical Usefulness of Monitoring Cytomegalovirus-Specific Immunity by Quantiferon-CMV in Pediatric Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Recipients. Annals of Laboratory Medicine, 37, 277-281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[21] Seo, E., et al. (2023) Immunologic Monitoring of Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Enzyme-Linked Immune Absorbent Spot (ELISPOT) for Controlling Clinically Significant CMV Infection in Pediatric Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. PLOS ONE, 18, e0294486. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0246191 [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[22] Gagelmann, N., Ljungman, P., Styczynski, J. and Kröger, N. (2018) Comparative Efficacy and Safety of Different Antiviral Agents for Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, 24, 2101-2109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[23] César, T., Le, M.P., Klifa, R., Castelle, M., Fournier, B., Lévy, R., et al. (2023) Letermovir for CMV Prophylaxis in Very High-Risk Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Recipients for Inborn Errors of Immunity. Journal of Clinical Immunology, 44, Article No. 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[24] Galaverna, F., Baccelli, F., Zama, D., Tridello, G., Masetti, R., Soncini, E., et al. (2024) Letermovir for Cytomegalovirus Infection in Pediatric Patients Undergoing Allogenic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: A Real-Life Study by the Infectious Diseases Working Group of Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology (AIEOP). Bone Marrow Transplantation, 59, 505-512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[25] Kuhn, A., Puttkammer, J., Madigan, T., Dinnes, L., Khan, S., Ferdjallah, A., et al. (2023) Letermovir as Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis in a Pediatric Cohort: A Retrospective Analysis. Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, 29, 62.e1-62.e4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[26] Gutierrez, V., Stanek, J., Ardura, M.I. and Song, E. (2024) Cytomegalovirus Viral Load at Initiation of Pre‐Emptive Antiviral Therapy Impacts Cytomegalovirus Dynamics in Pediatric Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Recipients. Transplant Infectious Disease, 26, e14358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[27] Ljungman, P., Chemaly, R.F., Khawaya, F., Alain, S., Avery, R., Badshah, C., et al. (2024) Consensus Definitions of Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection and Disease in Transplant Patients Including Resistant and Refractory CMV for Use in Clinical Trials: 2024 Update from the Transplant Associated Virus Infections Forum. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 79, 787-794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[28] Chou, S., Waldemer, R.H., Senters, A.E., Michels, K.S., Kemble, G.W., Miner, R.C., et al. (2002) Cytomegalovirus UL97 Phosphotransferase Mutations That Affect Susceptibility to Ganciclovir. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 185, 162-169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[29] Chou, S. (2015) Rapid in Vitro Evolution of Human Cytomegalovirus UL56 Mutations That Confer Letermovir Resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 59, 6588-6593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[30] Khawaja, F., Zamora, D., Yong, M.K., Hakki, M., Goscicki, B.K., Danziger-Isakov, L., et al. (2025) American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy Series #11: Updated Cytomegalovirus Guidelines in Hematopoietic Cell Transplant and Cellular Therapy Recipients. Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, 31, 727-741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[31] Cassaniti, I., Colombo, A.A., Bernasconi, P., Malagola, M., Russo, D., Iori, A.P., et al. (2021) Positive HCMV Dnaemia in Stem Cell Recipients Undergoing Letermovir Prophylaxis Is Expression of Abortive Infection. American Journal of Transplantation, 21, 1622-1628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[32] Groll, A.H., Danziger-Isakov, L., Gefen, A., Fraser, C.J., Schulte, J.H., Bielorai, B., et al. (2025) Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis with Letermovir in Pediatric (Birth to < 18 Years of Age) Hematopoietic Cell Transplant Recipients: Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Safety Results of a Phase 2b Study. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 69, e0042025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[33] Zhu, Y., Wang, L., Xiang, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, A., Wang, Y., et al. (2025) Efficacy and Safety of Letermovir for Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis Following Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Pediatric Patients. Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 19, 5059-5069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[34] Song, E. (2024) Case Report: Approaches for Managing Resistant Cytomegalovirus in Pediatric Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Recipients. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 12, Article ID: 1394006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[35] Sun, K., Hayes, S., Farrell, C. and Song, I.H. (2023) Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling and Simulation of Maribavir to Support Dose Selection and Regulatory Approval in Adolescents with Posttransplant Refractory Cytomegalovirus. CPT: Pharmacometrics & Systems Pharmacology, 12, 719-723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[36] Luque-Paz, D., et al. (2024) Absence of Maribavir Penetration into the Central Nervous System: Confirmation by Multiple Cerebrospinal Fluid Dosages in a Solid Organ Transplant Recipient. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 79, 1462-1463.
[37] Blyth, E., Clancy, L., Simms, R., Ma, C.K.K., Burgess, J., Deo, S., et al. (2013) Donor-Derived CMV-Specific T Cells Reduce the Requirement for CMV-Directed Pharmacotherapy after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation. Blood, 121, 3745-3758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[38] Pei, X., Liu, X., Zhao, X., Lv, M., Mo, X., Chang, Y., et al. (2022) Comparable Anti-CMV Responses of Transplant Donor and Third-Party CMV-Specific T Cells for Treatment of CMV Infection after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation. Cellular & Molecular Immunology, 19, 482-491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[39] Leen, A.M., Bollard, C.M., Mendizabal, A.M., Shpall, E.J., Szabolcs, P., Antin, J.H., et al. (2013) Multicenter Study of Banked Third-Party Virus-Specific T Cells to Treat Severe Viral Infections after Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Blood, 121, 5113-5123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[40] Keller, M.D., Hanley, P.J., Chi, Y., Aguayo-Hiraldo, P., Dvorak, C.C., Verneris, M.R., et al. (2024) Antiviral Cellular Therapy for Enhancing T-Cell Reconstitution before or after Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (ACES): A Two-Arm, Open Label Phase II Interventional Trial of Pediatric Patients with Risk Factor Assessment. Nature Communications, 15, Article No. 3258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[41] Neuenhahn, M., Albrecht, J., Odendahl, M., Schlott, F., Dössinger, G., Schiemann, M., et al. (2017) Transfer of Minimally Manipulated CMV-Specific T Cells from Stem Cell or Third-Party Donors to Treat CMV Infection after Allo-HSCT. Leukemia, 31, 2161-2171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]