肺动脉高压的治疗研究进展
Research Progress in the Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2026.1631096, PDF, HTML, XML,    科研立项经费支持
作者: 杨 菌, 刘彩娥, 贾成真, 吴金婷:湖北文理学院基础医学院,湖北 襄阳;范晓航*:湖北文理学院基础医学院,湖北 襄阳;湖北文理学院附属医院襄阳市中心医院心血管疾病研究所,湖北 襄阳
关键词: 肺动脉高压药物治疗基因治疗干细胞治疗介入与外科手术Pulmonary Hypertension Drug Therapy Gene Therapy Stem Cell Therapy Interventional and Surgical Procedures
摘要: 肺动脉高压(pulmonary hypertension, PH)是一种以肺血管结构或功能改变,引起肺血管阻力和肺动脉压力进行性升高、最终导致右心衰竭乃至死亡为特征的恶性心血管疾病。目前,肺动脉高压的病理生理学机制并不完全明确,且患病率和死亡率较高,虽然靶向药物的应用显著改善了患者生存率,但PH仍是一种高致死性疾病。因而需持续对诊疗理念与策略进行改进和创新来支持患者,改善患者的生存质量。目前,PH的治疗策略已从单一支持治疗发展为以靶向药物联合治疗为核心的综合管理。传统的药物治疗结合基因治疗、干细胞治疗、介入与外科手术等手段,对治疗方案进行优化,提高了治疗的可行性,有效改善患者预后。本文结合以往文献对PH的治疗进展进行综述。
Abstract: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a malignant cardiovascular disease characterized by alterations in pulmonary vascular structure or function, leading to progressive increases in pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary arterial pressure, which ultimately result in right heart failure and death. Currently, the pathophysiological mechanisms of PH are not fully elucidated, and both prevalence and mortality remain high; although the application of targeted therapies has significantly improved survival rates, PH remains a highly fatal condition. Therefore, ongoing refinement and innovation in diagnostic and therapeutic concepts and strategies are essential to support patients and enhance their quality of life. Now, the treatment strategy for PH has evolved from sole supportive care to comprehensive management centered on combination targeted therapy. Optimization of treatment regimens—incorporating conventional pharmacological treatments with approaches such as gene therapy, stem cell therapy, and interventional or surgical procedures—enhances feasibility and effectively improves prognosis. This study reviews the advances in PH treatment based on previous literature.
文章引用:杨菌, 刘彩娥, 贾成真, 吴金婷, 范晓航. 肺动脉高压的治疗研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2026, 16(3): 2930-2939. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2026.1631096

1. 引言

肺动脉高压(pulmonary hypertension, PH)是一种进展性强、预后差的恶性肺血管疾病,以肺血管阻力进行性升高为主要特征,其病变核心是肺小动脉异常收缩、内膜增生、中膜肥厚、外膜纤维化,导致肺血管重构和进行性闭塞[1]。右心室为克服增加的肺血管阻力而代偿性肥厚,最终发展为右心衰竭[2]。流行病学数据显示,全球约1%的人口患有PH,其中左心疾病相关性PH、为肺部疾病和/或低氧相关性PH是最常见的类型,其次为动脉性肺动脉高压(pulmonary arterial hypertension, PAH) [2] [3]。在PH患者中,肺血管重构表现为复杂的病理过程,涉及多种细胞类型及分子机制,其中肺动脉平滑肌细胞过度增殖与迁移是这一重构的核心特征,导致血管壁增厚及管腔狭窄,成为疾病进展的主要驱动因素[4]

目前,尽管已有多种药物被批准用于治疗肺动脉高压,如磷酸二酯酶-5 抑制剂、前列环素类似物、内皮素受体拮抗剂,分别靶向一氧化氮途径、前列环素途径、内皮素途径进行治疗[5] [6]。靶向药物的使用改善患者的症状,提高运动耐量,延长了患者的生存时间,但患者的长期生存率仍不理想,严重威胁患者生命健康。因此,系统梳理流行病学现状,深入理解病理机制,并全面综述从经典靶向药物到前沿生物疗法的最新治疗进展,对于指导临床实践和明确未来研究方向具有至关重要的意义[2] [3]。本文将从药物治疗、基因治疗、干细胞治疗及介入/外科策略等方面系统综述肺动脉高压的治疗研究进展。

2. PH的治疗策略

2.1. 药物治疗

2.1.1. 靶向药物治疗

肺动脉高压是一种以肺血管阻力进行性升高和右心功能衰竭为特征的全球性致死性疾病。目前,PH的靶向治疗主要围绕三条经典病理生理通路展开,即内皮素(endothelin, ET)通路、一氧化氮(nitric oxide, NO)通路以及前列环素(prostacyclin, PGI2)通路。靶向药物通过调控上述通路的关键信号分子,发挥血管舒张、抗增殖及抗重塑等治疗作用,是当前PH治疗的主要药物[5] [6]

内皮素-1 (endothelin-1, ET-1)是迄今发现的最强效的血管收缩剂和促有丝分裂原之一。内皮素受体拮抗剂(endothelin receptor antagonists, ERAs)通过阻断ET-1与ETA和/或ETB受体结合发挥疗效[7]。内皮素-1在PH患者肺血管中过度表达[8],主要通过激活肺血管平滑肌细胞上的ETA受体,引发强烈的血管收缩并刺激细胞增殖、迁移和纤维化;而内皮细胞上的ETB受体被证明有双重作用,一方面可以通过促进NO和PGI2释放介导血管舒张[9],另一方面,其可促使具有强效肺血管收缩性的血栓烷A2 (thromboxane A2, TXA2)释放[10]。波生坦是一种口服非特异性内皮素受体拮抗剂,可同时拮抗ETA和ETB受体。作为首个口服PH靶向药物,其疗效确凿,但因可能引起剂量依赖性的肝转氨酶升高,需每月监测肝功能,临床应用有所不便[11]。安立生坦是选择性ETA受体拮抗剂,主要阻断ETA受体,保留ETB受体介导的ET-1清除和血管舒张功能,因此肝毒性风险显著低于波生坦,安全性更优[12]。马昔腾坦对ETA和ETB受体均具有高亲和力,且组织穿透性更强,能够更有效地抑制ET-1信号通路。关键性III期临床试验(SERAPHIN研究)表明,马昔腾坦能显著降低PH患者发生死亡、房间隔造口术、肺移植或因PH恶化住院等复合终点事件的风险,且肝毒性事件发生率低,现已成为一线核心治疗药物之一[13]

一氧化氮(nitric oxide, NO)由血管内皮细胞合成,是关键的血管舒张信号分子。NO扩散至平滑肌细胞,激活可溶性鸟苷酸环化酶(soluble guanylate cyclase, sGC),催化生成第二信使环磷酸鸟苷(cGMP),进而激活蛋白激酶G,最终导致血管平滑肌舒张并抑制其增殖[14]。在PH患者中,内皮功能障碍导致NO生物利用度下降,同时sGC活性亦可能受损,使此通路信号显著减弱[15]。针对NO通路的多种药物已被批准用于治疗PH,西地那非、他达拉非等药物通过选择性抑制分解cGMP的关键酶——5型磷酸二酯酶(phosphodiesterase 5, PDE5),减少cGMP降解,从而提高其细胞内浓度,发挥持久的血管舒张和抗增殖作用[16]。利奥西呱是鸟苷酸环化酶激动剂,作用机制独特且直接,一方面可作为sGC的“敏化剂”,增强sGC对内源性NO的反应;另一方面,在NO缺乏或氧化应激状态下,可以不依赖于NO的方式直接激活sGC,从而稳定并显著提高cGMP生成[17]

前列环素(prostacyclin, PG)主要由血管内皮细胞产生,可舒张血管、抑制血小板聚集和血管平滑肌细胞增殖[18]。PH患者体内PG合成通路活性下降,通过补充外源性PG或模拟其作用,激活平滑肌细胞上的前列环素受体,增加细胞内环磷酸腺苷(cAMP)水平,从而产生广泛的血管保护效应。临床研究表明,PG可显著改善PH患者的心输出量、降低肺血管阻力、减轻右心室后负荷及长期生存率[19]。PG类药物从需要持续中心静脉泵入(如依前列醇),发展到皮下注射、吸入等剂型,显著改善了给药便捷性,减少了感染等风险事件的发生。目前可口服前列环素类似物贝前列素、曲前列尼尔缓释片、司来帕格等,其便利性使其得以广泛应用于早期联合治疗。大型III期临床试验证实,在现有治疗基础上加用司来帕格,可显著降低PH患者疾病进展的风险[20]

2.1.2. 激活素/TGF-β超家族信号通路

转化生长因子-β超家族(transforming growth factor-beta superfamily, TGF-β超家族)是一类高度保守的细胞因子家族,包括TGF-βs、激活素(activins)、结节素及骨形成蛋白(BMPs)等亚族[21]。这些配体通过结合特定的I型和II型丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶受体复合物,激活经典Smad依赖性信号转导通路,进而调控细胞增殖、分化及凋亡等生物学过程[21]。在肺血管系统中,骨形态发生蛋白信号通路(bone morphogenetic protein signaling pathway, BMP通路)尤其是通过骨形态发生蛋白II型受体(bone morphogenetic protein receptor type II, BMPR2)介导的通路是维持血管稳态的关键调控因子,其可通过抑制肺动脉平滑肌细胞增殖并促进凋亡发挥血管保护作用[22] [23]。激活素、生长分化因子(GDFs)及TGF-β信号可促进细胞增殖、迁移、纤维化及炎症反应[24]

BMPR2属于TGF-β超家族受体家族,其胞外域可与BMP配体结合,胞内域则通过招募共受体及激活Smad1/5/8信号通路调控下游基因表达[23]。BMPR2突变导致配体结合障碍,受体稳定性降低和信号通路交叉干扰,促使血管壁进行性增厚及管腔狭窄[25]。BMPR2功能缺失突变或表达下调可导致保护性BMP/Smad1/5/8信号传导减弱[25],这种信号失衡驱动肺动脉平滑肌细胞异常增殖、迁移及抗凋亡,同时伴随细胞外基质过度沉积,最终导致进行性血管壁增厚及管腔狭窄[26]。家族性PAH病例中,约70%~80%由BMPR2基因突变引起[22]

Sotatercept是一种创新性的生物制药,由美国FDA于2024年3月批准上市,用于治疗WHO第1类PH (即PAH),它是一种由人激活素受体IIA (AcvRIIA)胞外配体结合域与IgG1 Fc段融合而成的重组蛋白,可作为“配体陷阱”选择性结合TGF-β超家族中的激活素和生长分化因子(growth differentiation factor, GDF),从而抑制其与内源性受体结合并阻断下游信号激活[27]。Sotatercept通过恢复BMP/Smad1/5/8与激活素/Smad2/3信号通路的平衡,可逆转肺血管平滑肌细胞异常增殖及纤维化,改善肺血管重构[27]。一项关键的III期临床试验评估了Sotatercept在WHO功能分级III/IV级高风险PAH患者中的疗效。该研究纳入接受最大耐受背景治疗的患者,随机分配至Sotatercept组或安慰剂组,结果显示治疗组仅17.4%的患者发生死亡、肺移植或因PAH住院的复合终点事件,显著低于安慰剂组的54.7%,WHO功能分级改善率明显提高[28]。Sotatercept的出现标志着PH治疗从“单纯舒张血管”向“针对血管重构病理生理过程”的跨越,可显著降低高风险患者的临床恶化风险,并有望延迟或避免肺移植需求,是PH靶向治疗从症状控制向疾病修饰的转变[29]。未来研究应进一步探索其长期安全性及联合治疗潜力,以优化PH管理方案。

2.1.3. 联合治疗策略

PH发病机制涉及多通路异常,单一通路阻断往往难以充分控制疾病进展。联合治疗旨在通过同时干预不同信号通路,通过协同或叠加效应,更有效地改善血流动力学状态,延缓疾病进展。目前,初始联合治疗及基于风险评定的序贯联合治疗已成为国际共识,并逐渐成为PH的标准治疗策略[30] [31]

内皮素受体拮抗剂可抑制ET-1引起的血管收缩和促增殖作用,而5型磷酸二酯酶抑制剂(PDE5i)或sGC激动剂则通过增强NO-cGMP通路促进血管舒张。两者联用可从不同角度协同降低血管张力,抑制肺血管重构。在此基础上,加用前列环素通路激动剂,通过cAMP通路进一步强化血管舒张和抗增殖效应,形成针对三大核心通路的“三重联合”,是目前较为积极的药物治疗方案[32]。有研究证实“安立生坦 + 他达拉非”的初始联合方案在改善运动耐量、血流动力学参数、延缓临床恶化及改善预后等方面优于单药治疗[33]

2.1.4. 中药治疗

目前,中药主要定位于标准治疗的辅助角色,在PH的辅助治疗中展现出独特价值,主要用于改善症状、提高生活质量。其应用需建立在规范化靶向治疗基础上,并在中医师指导下辨证施治。然而,由于中药成分复杂且分析方法有限,且缺乏大规模的严格临床验证,目前FDA和CFDA批准的PH治疗中药的数量较少[34]

在临床前研究层面,川芎嗪、丹参酮等中药单体在动物模型中显示出抗炎、抗氧化、抑制肺动脉平滑肌细胞增殖和诱导凋亡的潜在作用,但仍然局限于基础研究阶段。此外,一项多中心、随机、双盲、安慰剂对照临床研究表明,在标准靶向治疗基础上加用芪苈强心胶囊,可能有助于降低患者氨基末端脑利钠肽前体(N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, NT-proBNP) 水平,改善心功能分级、6分钟步行距离和生活质量[35]。然而,该领域仍普遍缺乏大规模、长期随访的高质量随机对照试验(RCT)证据。因此,现有临床结果的普适性、长期疗效及具体作用机制尚需进一步验证。未来需要更多高质量、大样本的循证医学研究明确其相关机制和疗效。

2.2. 基因治疗

基因变异或表达失调现在被认为是促进肺动脉平滑肌细胞增殖和凋亡抑制、引起肺血管重塑、导致PH发生发展的重要因素。约80%的遗传性PAH和20%~30%的特发性PAH患者存在骨形成蛋白受体II型(bone morphogenetic protein receptor type II, BMPR2)基因突变,导致BMP/Smad信号通路抑制,从而促进血管重构[36]。基因治疗旨在从根源上纠正类似缺陷。目前主要的治疗策略是利用重组腺相关病毒载体(adeno-associated virus, rAAV)将功能性BMPR2基因靶向递送至肺血管内皮细胞,以恢复正常的信号通路功能。rAAV因其较低的免疫原性、长期表达潜力及较好的安全性而被广泛研究。在载体选择上,AAV1血清型对肺内皮细胞具有较高的天然亲和力,是实现肺血管靶向递送的常用载体[37]。在野百合碱(monocrotaline, MCT)诱导或低氧加SU5416诱导的大鼠PH模型中,AAV1-BMPR2基因治疗已被证实能够有效降低肺动脉压力、逆转右心室肥厚和肺血管重构[38]。研究显示,AAV-BMPR2基因转移不仅能改善血流动力学参数,还能部分恢复肺部BMPR2表达,减轻肺血管重构和耐药,抑制左心室重塑并显著恢复右心室功能[39]

虽然rAAV对肺部有一定靶向性,但仍会分布到肝、心等其他器官,可引起脱靶效应[40]。另外,如何通过载体工程实现高效、特异性的肺血管内皮递送,是提高疗效与安全性的关键。PH是一种高度异质性疾病。患者BMPR2突变类型、其他遗传修饰因子、不同的疾病驱动通路以及合并症都存在差异。由于背景的多样性,即使BMPR2表达得到完美恢复,其下游信号通路的改善程度和最终的病理逆转效果也会因人而异[41]

2.3. 干细胞治疗

干细胞治疗为PH提供一种全新的治疗模式,通过调节肺血管微环境来促进内源性修复,抑制肺血管重构和细胞过度增生,减缓PH发展和右心衰竭,从而在无严重不良反应的情况下实现心肺功能的临床改善[42]

在众多干细胞类型中,间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cells, MSCs)以其卓越的体外扩增能力、培养过程的可重复性,以及向骨、软骨、肌肉、血管平滑肌等结缔组织细胞分化的多向潜能而著称,因而被视作最具应用前景的干细胞[43]。MSCs易于获取,具有低免疫原性和强大的旁分泌能力,可从骨髓、脂肪组织、脐带华通氏胶、牙髓等多种组织中分离并体外大规模培养。MSCs主要通过分泌外泌体、生长因子(如VEGF、HGF)、细胞因子和miRNA等,发挥抗炎、抗凋亡、促血管生成和调节免疫微环境的作用,而非直接分化为内皮细胞[44]。大量研究已经证实静脉输注异体骨髓来源的MSCs在特发性肺动脉高压(idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension, IPAH)患者中安全可行[45]。尽管其安全性和初步可行性已得到验证,但MSCs治疗PH的临床疗效尚未形成一致的高级别证据,且具体作用机制与最佳治疗方案仍在深入探索中。

多项临床前研究为MSCs治疗肺动脉高压的有效性提供扎实证据。在不同动物模型中,MSCs治疗均能显著改善血流动力学指标并逆转肺血管重构。在MCT诱导的大鼠PH模型中,静脉输注脂肪来源的MSCs能有效降低右心室收缩压,减轻肺血管平滑肌增殖、胶原沉积及炎症细胞浸润,可通过促进细胞凋亡、抑制内皮–间充质转化(EndMT)、调节巨噬细胞从促炎的M1表型向修复型表型转化等机制发挥治疗作用[46]。Shao F等在PH鸡模型中,采用内源性骨髓来源的MSCs治疗可降低PH发病率和右心室肥大,减轻丛状病变的特征性肺血管损伤,其机制可能与调节肺部炎症和增强血管生成有关[47]

研究表明,MSCs来源的外泌体(MSC-Exo)足以复制MSCs的治疗效果,在MCT诱导的PH模型中,可预防、逆转右心室肥厚和肺血管壁增厚,其作用机制与所携带的特定微小RNA (miRNA)密切相关。病理状态下,循环中的外泌体富含促增殖性miR-19b、miR-20a等;治疗性MSC-Exo则富含抗炎和抗增殖的miR-34a、miR-122等,它们通过调节肺血管细胞的基因表达实现治疗效果[48]

基于MSCs及其外泌体的治疗策略,通过调控肺血管微环境、促进细胞凋亡、调节巨噬细胞功能及递送特异性miRNA等多重机制,为逆转PH血管重构提供了新途径。未来的研究焦点在于明确其最佳的细胞来源、外泌体分离方案、给药途径,并推动其向标准化干细胞疗法的临床转化[47] [48]

2.4. 介入与外科治疗

2.4.1. 房间隔造口术

房间隔造口术是治疗晚期、药物难治性PH重要姑息性介入手段,尤其适用于经充分靶向药物治疗后仍反复出现晕厥或存在难治性右心衰竭的患者。其核心原理在于通过人为建立心房水平的右向左分流,使部分右心房血液直接流入左心房,可明显降低右心压力、增加左心室前负荷与心输出量,从而缓解右心衰竭症状,维持全身重要器官灌注[49]。然而,传统的球囊房间隔造口术后自发闭合率较高(约30%),因而其长期应用受到限制[50]。结合射频消融与球囊扩张的造口术可克服这一局限,在重度PH患者中具有显著优势[51]。一项针对19名重度PH患者(平均肺动脉压73 mmHg)的临床研究显示,术后所有患者心房分流稳定,中期随访无一例自发闭合,窗口大小保持高度一致。尽管术后静息血氧饱和度平均下降约6%,但患者心输出量显著提升,临床症状明显改善;运动耐量大幅提高,6分钟步行距离平均增加159.5米;心功能分级平均提升一级;右心压力负荷减轻,左心输出量增加[52],证实该技术的可行性与有效性。但其长期疗效与安全性仍需更大规模研究进一步验证。

2.4.2. 肺移植或心肺联合移植

肺移植(lung transplantation, LT)或心肺联合移植(heart-lung transplantation, HLT)是对于接受优化联合药物治疗后,疾病仍持续进展或处于高风险状态的终末期肺动脉高压患者,唯一能从根本上解除病因、挽救生命的最终治疗方案[53]

患者在接受最大剂量药物治疗后,评估心功能III-IV级,并伴有严重血流动力学障碍或右心衰竭迹象时,应立即启动肺移植评估[54]。然而现实中的移植应用率极低。一项西班牙全国性登记研究显示,在1391名PH患者中,仅有2.6%的患者(36人)最终完成移植。值得注意的是,在死亡患者中,有36人符合潜在的移植条件却未能获得器官,显示出肺移植供体短缺与临床决策延迟的双重挑战[55]

对于PH患者,双侧肺移植效果与心肺移植相当,可避免心脏移植的复杂性。单肺移植因术后容易出现严重的再灌注肺水肿和通气/灌注不匹配,现已极少采用[56]。传统的体外循环(cardiopulmonary bypass, CPB)因易引发全身炎症和出血风险,已逐渐被体外膜肺氧合(extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, ECMO) 取代。ECMO可提供更稳定的术中、术后血流动力学支持,帮助右心室适应突然降低的后负荷,并预防因左心室前负荷急剧增加而导致的急性左心衰竭——这是PH患者术后特有的高风险并发症[57]。除了左心衰竭风险,PH患者术后发生原发性移植物功能障碍(primary graft dysfunction, PGD)的风险也较高。精细的液体管理、保护性通气策略及必要时继续使用ECMO是手术管理的关键。

3. 不足与展望

目前靶向药物主要作用于肺血管舒缩功能,可改善PH临床症状并延缓疾病进程,但难以彻底逆转已形成的闭塞性血管重构,使疾病进展无法遏制[3] [6]。治疗反应存在显著的个体差异,而临床缺乏可靠的预测性生物标志物指导药物选择,使得治疗过程仍带有一定的“试错”性质。再者,绝大多数治疗的焦点仍局限于肺循环,直接针对右心室的功能、代谢与能量学的特异性药物几乎处于空白状态,而右心功能恰恰是决定患者预后的最终因素[31]。此外,高昂的药物费用限制了全球范围治疗的普及性,当疾病进展至晚期难治性右心衰竭时,药物治疗效果锐减,而作为最终手段的肺移植又面临供体严重短缺的困境,患者往往陷入绝境。

如今PH的治疗正朝着精准化、根源化与个体化方向演进。治疗策略更强调早期、积极的联合干预,并借助人工智能进行动态风险预测与方案优化。以基因治疗和外泌体疗法为代表的突破性生物疗法有望从根源上纠正病理缺陷,其临床转化备受期待[39] [44]。治疗视角从单一的肺血管拓展至直接的心脏保护,针对右心室功能与代谢的药物研发将成为新的里程碑[58]。通过多组学分析对患者进行分子分型,同时,揭示炎症免疫、代谢重编程及表观遗传调控等新兴靶点,为开发新型药物奠定基础[59]。最终,前沿科学进展终会真正惠及全球每一位PH患者!

致 谢

感恩导师悉心教诲,致谢同窗鼎力相助,此程圆满,前路可期。学海无涯,愿共勉之!

基金项目

湖北省自然科学基金创新发展联合基金项目(2025AFD082),湖北文理学院科研基金项目资助(2024pygpzk07, 2023CDI10),湖北文理学院大学生创新创业项目(X202410519113, X202410519118)。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

参考文献

[1] Shah, A.J., Vorla, M. and Kalra, D.K. (2022) Molecular Pathways in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23, Article 10001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[2] Mocumbi, A., Humbert, M., Saxena, A., Jing, Z., Sliwa, K., Thienemann, F., et al. (2024) Pulmonary Hypertension. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 10, Article No. 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[3] Maron, B.A. and Galiè, N. (2016) Diagnosis, Treatment, and Clinical Management of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in the Contemporary Era. JAMA Cardiology, 1, 1056-1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[4] Wu, Z., Zhu, L., Nie, X., Wei, L. and Qi, Y. (2023) USP15 Promotes Pulmonary Vascular Remodeling in Pulmonary Hypertension in a YAP1/TAZ-Dependent Manner. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 55, 183-195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[5] Adu-Amankwaah, J., Shi, Y., Song, H., Ma, Y., Liu, J., Wang, H., et al. (2025) Signaling Pathways and Targeted Therapy for Pulmonary Hypertension. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 10, Article No. 207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[6] Chin, K.M., Gaine, S.P., Gerges, C., Jing, Z., Mathai, S.C., Tamura, Y., et al. (2024) Treatment Algorithm for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. European Respiratory Journal, 64, Article ID: 2401325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[7] Sauvageau, S., Thorin, E., Villeneuve, L. and Dupuis, J. (2009) Change in Pharmacological Effect of Endothelin Receptor Antagonists in Rats with Pulmonary Hypertension: Role of ETB-Receptor Expression Levels. Pulmonary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 22, 311-317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[8] Kawanabe, Y. and Nauli, S.M. (2010) Endothelin. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 68, 195-203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[9] de Nucci, G., Thomas, R., D’Orleans-Juste, P., Antunes, E., Walder, C., Warner, T.D., et al. (1988) Pressor Effects of Circulating Endothelin Are Limited by Its Removal in the Pulmonary Circulation and by the Release of Prostacyclin and Endothelium-Derived Relaxing Factor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 85, 9797-9800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[10] D’Orléans‐Juste, P., Claing, A., Télémaque, S., Maurice, M., Yano, M. and Gratton, J. (1994) Block of Endothelin‐1‐Induced Release of Thromboxane A2 from the Guinea Pig Lung and Nitric Oxide from the Rabbit Kidney by a Selective ETB Receptor Antagonist, Bq‐788. British Journal of Pharmacology, 113, 1257-1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[11] Saleh, J.A. (2008) Role of Iloprost and Bosentan in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Nigerian Journal of Medicine, 17, 13-19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[12] Galiè, N., Olschewski, H., Oudiz, R.J., Torres, F., Frost, A., Ghofrani, H.A., et al. (2008) Ambrisentan for the Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Results of the Ambrisentan in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Multicenter, Efficacy (ARIES) Study 1 and 2. Circulation, 117, 3010-3019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[13] Pulido, T., Adzerikho, I., Channick, R.N., Delcroix, M., Galiè, N., Ghofrani, H., et al. (2013) Macitentan and Morbidity and Mortality in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. New England Journal of Medicine, 369, 809-818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[14] Denninger, J.W. and Marletta, M.A. (1999) Guanylate Cyclase and the NO/cGMP Signaling Pathway. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)—Bioenergetics, 1411, 334-350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[15] Klinger, J.R. (2007) The Nitric Oxide/cGMP Signaling Pathway in Pulmonary Hypertension. Clinics in Chest Medicine, 28, 143-167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[16] Bogdan, M., Humbert, M., Francoual, J., Claise, C., Duroux, P., Simonneau, G., et al. (1998) Urinary cGMP Concentrations in Severe Primary Pulmonary Hypertension. Thorax, 53, 1059-1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[17] Stasch, J., Pacher, P. and Evgenov, O.V. (2011) Soluble Guanylate Cyclase as an Emerging Therapeutic Target in Cardiopulmonary Disease. Circulation, 123, 2263-2273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[18] Mubarak, K.K. (2010) A Review of Prostaglandin Analogs in the Management of Patients with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Respiratory Medicine, 104, 9-21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[19] Vanderpool, R.R., Desai, A.A., Knapp, S.M., Simon, M.A., Abidov, A., Yuan, J.X., et al. (2017) How Prostacyclin Therapy Improves Right Ventricular Function in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. European Respiratory Journal, 50, Article ID: 1700764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[20] Sitbon, O., Channick, R., Chin, K.M., Frey, A., Gaine, S., Galiè, N., et al. (2015) Selexipag for the Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. New England Journal of Medicine, 373, 2522-2533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[21] Lane, K.B., Machado, R.D., Pauciulo, M.W., Thomson, J.R., Phillips, J.A., Loyd, J.E., et al. (2000) Heterozygous Germline Mutations in BMPR2, Encoding a TGF-β Receptor, Cause Familial Primary Pulmonary Hypertension. Nature Genetics, 26, 81-84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[22] Evans, J.D.W., Girerd, B., Montani, D., Wang, X., Galiè, N., Austin, E.D., et al. (2016) BMPR2 Mutations and Survival in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: An Individual Participant Data Meta-Analysis. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 4, 129-137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[23] Tojais, N.F., Cao, A., Lai, Y., Wang, L., Chen, P., Alcazar, M.A.A., et al. (2017) Codependence of Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptor 2 and Transforming Growth Factor-Β in Elastic Fiber Assembly and Its Perturbation in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 37, 1559-1569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[24] Kumar, R., Nolan, K., Kassa, B., Chanana, N., Palmo, T., Sharma, K., et al. (2025) Monocytes and Interstitial Macrophages Contribute to Hypoxic Pulmonary Hypertension. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 135, e176865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[25] Austin, E.D. and Loyd, J.E. (2014) The Genetics of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Circulation Research, 115, 189-202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[26] Rabinovitch, M., Guignabert, C., Humbert, M. and Nicolls, M.R. (2014) Inflammation and Immunity in the Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Circulation Research, 115, 165-175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[27] Johnson, S., Sommer, N., Cox-Flaherty, K., Weissmann, N., Ventetuolo, C.E. and Maron, B.A. (2023) Pulmonary Hypertension: A Contemporary Review. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 208, 528-548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[28] Humbert, M., McLaughlin, V.V., Badesch, D.B., Ghofrani, H.A., Gibbs, J.S.R., Gomberg-Maitland, M., et al. (2025) Sotatercept in Patients with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension at High Risk for Death. New England Journal of Medicine, 392, 1987-2000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[29] Anand, S.C., Furqan, M., Tonelli, A.R., Brady, D., Levine, A., Rosenzweig, E.B., et al. (2025) Sotatercept: A New Era in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Cardiology in Review. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[30] Galiè, N., Humbert, M., Vachiery, J., Gibbs, S., Lang, I., Torbicki, A., et al. (2015) 2015 ESC/ERS Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension. European Heart Journal, 37, 67-119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[31] Galiè, N., Humbert, M., Vachiery, J., Gibbs, S., Lang, I., Torbicki, A., et al. (2015) 2015 ESC/ERS Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension. European Respiratory Journal, 46, 903-975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[32] Coghlan, J.G., Channick, R., Chin, K., Di Scala, L., Galiè, N., Ghofrani, H., et al. (2018) Targeting the Prostacyclin Pathway with Selexipag in Patients with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Receiving Double Combination Therapy: Insights from the Randomized Controlled GRIPHON Study. American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs, 18, 37-47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[33] Galiè, N., Barberà, J.A., Frost, A.E., Ghofrani, H., Hoeper, M.M., McLaughlin, V.V., et al. (2015) Initial Use of Ambrisentan Plus Tadalafil in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. New England Journal of Medicine, 373, 834-844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[34] Xue, Z., Li, Y., Zhou, M., Liu, Z., Fan, G., Wang, X., et al. (2021) Traditional Herbal Medicine Discovery for the Treatment and Prevention of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12, Article 720873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[35] Lu, Y., Wu, J., Sun, Y., Xin, L., Jiang, Z., Lin, H., Zhao, M. and Cui, X. (2020) Qiliqiangxin Prevents Right Ventricular Remodeling by Inhibiting Apoptosis and Improving Metabolism Reprogramming with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. American Journal of Translational Research, 12, 5655-5669.
[36] Yu, P.B., Deng, D.Y., Beppu, H., Hong, C.C., Lai, C., Hoyng, S.A., et al. (2008) Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) Type II Receptor Is Required for Bmp-Mediated Growth Arrest and Differentiation in Pulmonary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 283, 3877-3888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[37] Hadri, L., Kratlian, R.G., Benard, L., Maron, B.A., Dorfmüller, P., Ladage, D., et al. (2013) Therapeutic Efficacy of AAV1.SERCA2a in Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Circulation, 128, 512-523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[38] Bisserier, M., Mathiyalagan, P., Zhang, S., Elmastour, F., Dorfmüller, P., Humbert, M., et al. (2021) Regulation of the Methylation and Expression Levels of the BMPR2 Gene by SIN3a as a Novel Therapeutic Mechanism in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Circulation, 144, 52-73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[39] Bisserier, M., Katz, M.G., Bueno-Beti, C., Brojakowska, A., Zhang, S., Gubara, S., et al. (2021) Combination Therapy with STAT3 Inhibitor Enhances SERCA2a-Induced BMPR2 Expression and Inhibits Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, Article 9105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[40] Ding, Y., Tu, P., Chen, Y., Huang, Y., Pan, X. and Chen, W. (2021) CYP2J2 and EETs Protect against Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension with Lung Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Vivo and in Vitro. Respiratory Research, 22, Article No. 291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[41] Brimble, M.A., Winston, S.M. and Davidoff, A.M. (2023) Stowaways in the Cargo: Contaminating Nucleic Acids in Raav Preparations for Gene Therapy. Molecular Therapy, 31, 2826-2838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[42] Ding, X., Liang, H., Yuan, B., Li, L., Wang, T., Kan, Q., et al. (2019) Efficacy of Stem Cell Therapy for Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Studies. Stem Cell Research & Therapy, 10, Article No. 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[43] Wang, C., Cherng, W., Yang, N., Kuo, L., Hsu, C., Yeh, H., et al. (2008) Late-Outgrowth Endothelial Cells Attenuate Intimal Hyperplasia Contributed by Mesenchymal Stem Cells after Vascular Injury. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 28, 54-60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[44] Aslam, M., Baveja, R., Liang, O.D., Fernandez-Gonzalez, A., Lee, C., Mitsialis, S.A., et al. (2009) Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Attenuate Lung Injury in a Murine Model of Neonatal Chronic Lung Disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 180, 1122-1130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[45] Mansouri, N., Willis, G.R., Fernandez-Gonzalez, A., Reis, M., Nassiri, S., Mitsialis, S.A., et al. (2019) Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Exosomes Prevent and Revert Experimental Pulmonary Fibrosis through Modulation of Monocyte Phenotypes. JCI Insight, 4, e128060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[46] de Mendonça, L., Felix, N.S., Blanco, N.G., Da Silva, J.S., Ferreira, T.P., Abreu, S.C., et al. (2017) Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Therapy Reduces Lung Inflammation and Vascular Remodeling and Improves Hemodynamics in Experimental Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Stem Cell Research & Therapy, 8, Article No. 220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[47] Shao, F., Liu, R., Tan, X., Zhang, Q., Ye, L., Yan, B., et al. (2022) MSC Transplantation Attenuates Inflammation, Prevents Endothelial Damage and Enhances the Angiogenic Potency of Endogenous MSCs in a Model of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Journal of Inflammation Research, 15, 2087-2101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[48] Aliotta, J.M., Pereira, M., Wen, S., Dooner, M.S., Del Tatto, M., Papa, E., et al. (2016) Exosomes Induce and Reverse Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension in Mice. Cardiovascular Research, 110, 319-330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[49] Khan, M.S., Memon, M.M., Amin, E., Yamani, N., Khan, S.U., Figueredo, V.M., et al. (2019) Use of Balloon Atrial Septostomy in Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Chest, 156, 53-63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[50] Kurzyna, M., Dąbrowski, M., Bielecki, D., Fijalkowska, A., Pruszczyk, P., Opolski, G., et al. (2007) Atrial Septostomy in Treatment of End-Stage Right Heart Failure in Patients with Pulmonary Hypertension. Chest, 131, 977-983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[51] Yan, C., Niu, G., Niu, H., Li, L., Wan, L. and Li, H. (2018) Stable Interatrial Communication Combining Balloon Atrial Septostomy and Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 72, 1873-1875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[52] Yan, C., Wan, L., Li, H., Wang, C., Guo, T., Niu, H., et al. (2022) First In-Human Modified Atrial Septostomy Combining Radiofrequency Ablation and Balloon Dilation. Heart, 108, 1690-1698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[53] López-Meseguer, M., Quezada, C.A., Ramon, M.A., Lázaro, M., Dos, L., Lara, A., et al. (2017) Lung and Heart-Lung Transplantation in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. PLOS ONE, 12, e0187811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[54] Weill, D., Benden, C., Corris, P.A., Dark, J.H., Davis, R.D., Keshavjee, S., et al. (2015) A Consensus Document for the Selection of Lung Transplant Candidates: 2014—An Update from the Pulmonary Transplantation Council of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. The Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation, 34, 1-15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[55] Corris, P. and Degano, B. (2014) Severe Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Treatment Options and the Bridge to Transplantation. European Respiratory Review, 23, 488-497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[56] Tudorache, I., Sommer, W., Kühn, C., Wiesner, O., Hadem, J., Fühner, T., et al. (2015) Lung Transplantation for Severe Pulmonary Hypertension—Awake Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Postoperative Left Ventricular Remodelling. Transplantation, 99, 451-458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[57] Moser, B., Jaksch, P., Taghavi, S., Muraközy, G., Lang, G., Hager, H., et al. (2017) Lung Transplantation for Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension on Intraoperative and Postoperatively Prolonged Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Provides Optimally Controlled Reperfusion and Excellent Outcome. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 53, 178-185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[58] Ojopi, E.P.B., Tonon, C.R., Okoshi, K. and Okoshi, M.P. (2024) Hipertensão Arterial Pulmonar: Intervenções para Cardioproteção. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, 121, e20240445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
[59] Madonna, R. and Biondi, F. (2024) Sotatercept: New Drug on the Horizon of Pulmonary Hypertension. Vascular Pharmacology, 157, Article ID: 107442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]