TBBPA暴露的雄性生殖毒性研究进展
Research Progress on the Male Reproductive Toxicity Induced by TBBPA Exposure
DOI: 10.12677/hjbm.2026.162028, PDF, HTML, XML,   
作者: 林誉强, 陈雪梅:重庆医科大学公共卫生学院卫生毒理教研室,重庆;徐翰婷:重庆医科大学基础医学院组织胚胎学教研室,重庆
关键词: 四溴双酚A雄性生殖毒性内分泌干扰性毒性表现毒性机制TBBPA Male Reproductive Toxicity Endocrine Disrupting Properties Toxicity Manifestations Toxicity Mechanisms
摘要: 四溴双酚A (tetrabromobisphenol A, TBBPA)是全球使用最广泛的溴代阻燃剂,常用于电子电器、塑料和纺织品等的生产过程。随着这些产品的生产、使用和废弃,TBBPA逐渐进入多种环境介质如土壤、水体、灰尘中。TBBPA已在人类血清和乳汁中被检出,其在人体内蓄积可能造成的健康风险受到关注。随着科技发展,生殖健康问题日益受到关注。其中,雄性生殖系统作为TBBPA暴露的关键靶器官,已成为环境毒理学研究的重要焦点。本文综述了TBBPA的暴露途径,及其在睾丸内的蓄积证据、多层次生殖毒性及核心毒作用机制,为风险评估和干预提供依据。
Abstract: Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most widely used brominated flame retardant, commonly employed in the production processes of electronics, plastics, textiles, and other goods. Through the manufacturing, use, and disposal of these products, TBBPA gradually enters various environmental media such as soil, water bodies, and dust. TBBPA has been detected in human serum and breast milk, raising concerns about potential health risks from its accumulation in the human body. With technological advancements, reproductive health issues have garnered increasing attention. Among these, the male reproductive system, as a key target organ for TBBPA exposure, has become a major focus in environmental toxicology research. This review summarizes TBBPA exposure pathways, evidence of its accumulation in testes, multilevel reproductive toxicity, and core toxic mechanisms, providing a basis for risk assessment and intervention strategies.
文章引用:林誉强, 徐翰婷, 陈雪梅. TBBPA暴露的雄性生殖毒性研究进展[J]. 生物医学, 2026, 16(2): 267-276. https://doi.org/10.12677/hjbm.2026.162028

1. 引言

四溴双酚A (TBBPA)是一种广泛使用的溴化阻燃剂。目前,TBBPA已在环境介质和人体组织中检测到,提示其具有普遍的人体暴露风险。越来越多的研究显示,TBBPA暴露与多种健康问题密切相关,包括内分泌干扰、神经毒性、免疫毒性及生殖毒性等,其中雄性生殖系统对其尤为敏感。然而,TBBPA对雄性生殖功能损伤的毒性效应及其作用机制仍存在争议。因此本综述系统梳理了TBBPA暴露对雄性生殖系统的毒性效应及其机制,以期为评估其健康风险及制定相关防护策略提供科学依据。

2. TBBPA暴露途径及暴露水平

相比传统的溴化阻燃剂,四溴双酚A及其衍生物因其毒性更低、价格更便宜而被认为是一些持久性有毒溴化阻燃剂如十溴二苯醚和六溴环十二烷等的替代品[1]。自2001年以来,TBBPA的产量大幅提高,被广泛用于塑料、纺织品、电子或电气设备以及其他产品的生产过程[2]。TBBPA因其在各类环境介质中频繁被检出,相关生物毒性及生态健康风险已成为环境毒理学的研究焦点。

2.1. 暴露途径

TBBPA的暴露是一个多途径的过程,主要涵盖环境介质摄入与职业接触两大类。在非职业环境中,公众主要通过三种方式持续暴露:一是膳食摄入,特别是食用在受污染水体中生长并富集了TBBPA的鱼类等水产品[3];二是室内灰尘吸入与无意摄入,由于TBBPA广泛添加于电子产品、塑料和纺织品中,会从这些消费品中缓慢释放并蓄积于室内灰尘,成为日常暴露的重要来源[4];三是空气吸入,环境中悬浮的颗粒物可能携带TBBPA [5]。对于特定职业人群,如电子电器制造、回收及拆解行业的工人,则存在显著的职业暴露,他们通过呼吸道和皮肤直接接触生产环境中的TBBPA粉尘或蒸汽,其暴露强度和体内负荷通常远高于普通人群[6]。这些途径共同构成了TBBPA进入人体的完整暴露链条。

2.2. 环境暴露水平

TBBPA作为广泛使用的溴化阻燃剂,其环境暴露水平已呈现出广泛性和持久性的特征。在生产、使用和电子垃圾拆解回收过程中,TBBPA持续释放进入环境。目前在全球多地的土壤[7]、地表水[8]、空气[9]、灰尘[10]和垃圾渗滤液[11]均检出了TBBPA。由于其较高的辛醇/水含量分配系数(log Kow = 4.5~6.5)以及在环境中较长的半衰期(平均2个月) [12],TBBPA易于在食物链中传递,并在人类及其他动物体内产生显著的生物富集和累积效应。尤其是在电子垃圾拆解区等污染热点区域,其环境介质中的浓度显著高于普通地区。这种广泛的环境存在,构成了人体暴露的源头和基础。

2.3. 人体暴露水平

人体主要通过吸入受污染的空气与灰尘、摄入受污染的食物(特别是鱼类)以及职业接触等途径摄入TBBPA [13]。生物监测研究已在其职业暴露人群(如电子垃圾拆解工人)和普通居民的多种生物样本中检出TBBPA,证实其可被人体吸收并蓄积[14]。研究发现,人体头皮头发组织、乳汁和血清中均存在TBBPA的蓄积[15]。Cariou等人[16]报道称,TBBPA在母乳中的含量高达37.34 ng/g,在脐带血清中的含量为649.45 ng/g。表明TBBPA能够透过胎盘屏障,对胎儿造成直接暴露。这些数据揭示,人群已形成普遍且不容忽视的内暴露负荷,其健康风险值得深入关注。

3. TBBPA的雄性生殖毒性

作为全球应用最广泛的溴代阻燃剂,TBBPA因酚类结构而具备明确的内分泌干扰活性。其对雄性生殖的毒性,主要通过破坏激素稳态、诱导氧化应激与细胞凋亡等途径,损伤精子发生、睾丸发育及性腺功能,已成为环境与毒理研究热点。本节将从毒性效应与毒性机制两个层面系统阐述TBBPA的雄性生殖毒性。

3.1. TBBPA暴露与内源性激素干扰

TBBPA对雄性生殖系统的毒性,核心在于其内分泌干扰特性。雄性生殖功能的维持高度依赖于下丘脑–垂体–睾丸轴(HPT轴)的精密调控以及睾丸局部得稳定激素微环境,而TBBPA可通过多种方式破坏这一平衡[17]

3.1.1. 抗雄激素活性与雄激素合成抑制

多项体内外研究证实,TBBPA具有明确的抗雄激素效应。它能以竞争性或非竞争性方式与雄激素受体(androgen receptor, AR)结合,抑制内源性雄激素双氢睾酮(dihydrotestosterone, DHT)诱导的AR转录活性,从而干扰雄激素信号通路的正常转导[18]。这种对受体水平的直接干扰,是TBBPA影响雄性生殖的关键起点。更为重要的是,TBBPA能直接打击睾酮的生物合成源头——睾丸间质细胞[19]。研究显示,TBBPA暴露可显著降低大鼠血清睾酮水平[20],其分子机制涉及对类固醇合成通路中关键酶和转运蛋白的抑制。

这种对受体水平的直接干扰并非偶然,其分子基础可从TBBPA的结构特征及其与核受体的结合模式中得到解释[21]。TBBPA分子由双酚A (Bisphenol A, BPA)骨架演化而来,其中心异丙基桥联的双苯环结构在空间构型上与多种甾体激素及甲状腺激素配体具有一定相似性,而苯环上多位溴取代显著增强了分子的疏水性和体积特征,被认为是其获得较高受体亲和力的重要结构基础[22]

分子对接研究进一步证实,TBBPA可稳定嵌入AR的配体结合结构域(ligand-binding domain, LBD)。其酚羟基能够与AR关键氨基酸残基(如Gln711、Arg752等)形成稳定的氢键相互作用,而溴取代的苯环则通过增强疏水相互作用,提高配体–受体复合物的整体稳定性,从而在空间和能量层面竞争性占据DHT的结合位点,削弱内源性雄激素诱导的AR激活效应[23]。与未溴化的双酚A相比,TBBPA在对接评分和结合自由能方面均显示出更强的结合优势,提示溴原子的引入显著放大了其抗雄激素活性。

类似的结构–功能关系也体现在TBBPA对甲状腺激素受体(thyroid hormone receptor, TRα/β)的作用中[24]。分子对接模型显示,TBBPA可占据T4/T3的经典配体结合位点,其双酚结构模拟了甲状腺激素的芳香环骨架,而溴取代在空间上对碘原子产生一定的“体积与极性替代效应”,从而增强其与TR配体口袋疏水区域的匹配度[25]。这种“拟激素”特性使TBBPA在不同组织或暴露条件下既可能表现为部分激动剂,也可能发挥拮抗作用,进而扰乱甲状腺激素介导的下游信号转导。分子对接结果与体外功能实验相互印证,从结构层面解释了TBBPA为何能够同时靶向AR、ER及TR等多种核受体,并通过受体依赖方式引发HPT轴与甲状腺轴的交叉性内分泌干扰[26]。这种“多受体–多通路”的作用模式,为TBBPA雄性生殖毒性效应的复杂性及其低剂量、长期暴露风险提供了重要的分子机制解释。

3.1.2. 对下丘脑–垂体轴的潜在影响与甲状腺轴交叉干扰

除了直接作用于睾丸,TBBPA还可以通过影响上游的下丘脑–垂体–睾丸轴(HPT轴)间接干扰性腺功能[27]。垂体分泌的黄体生成素(luteinizing hormone, LH)是刺激间质细胞合成睾酮的主要信号。虽然具体机制尚未完全阐明,但长期或高剂量暴露可能干扰促性腺激素释放激素(GnRH)的脉冲分泌或垂体对GnRH的敏感性,从而影响LH水平,形成对睾酮合成的双重打击[28]。TBBPA及其类似物(如双酚A)主要通过核受体家族介导的“分子开关”效应扰乱HPT轴。其苯环–羟基骨架与甲状腺素T4、雌二醇(E2)的空间结构高度相似,可高亲和力结合甲状腺激素受体(TRα/β)与雌激素受体(ERα/β),进而干扰下游信号通路[29]。研究证实,TBBPA及其氯代衍生物可通过差异激活甲状腺激素和雌激素受体信号通路,在黑斑蛙雄性个体中引发HPT轴内分泌干扰[30]

此外,TBBPA对甲状腺系统的直接干扰作用也需重视。它能强力结合甲状腺激素转运蛋白(如转甲状腺素蛋白),竞争性抑制甲状腺激素T4的运输,并可能干扰甲状腺激素受体功能[25]。甲状腺激素不仅对全身代谢和发育至关重要,也与精子发生和睾丸功能密切相关[31]。甲状腺功能减退已被证实可导致性欲减退、精子发生障碍和睾酮水平下降[32]。因此,TBBPA一方面可能通过扰乱甲状腺轴,构成其雄性生殖毒性的另一条重要间接通路;另一方面,在地中海贻贝等模型中的研究也显示,TBBPA可通过激活ER和TR信号通路诱导生殖内分泌干扰效应,且该效应可被受体拮抗剂逆转,进一步证实了受体依赖路径的存在[33]。这些多重机制使得TBBPA的雄性生殖毒性效应更加复杂。

3.2. TBBPA对精子发生的影响

分子和激素水平的紊乱最终会在细胞、组织和个体层面显现出明确的毒性表型[34]

TBBPA暴露可引起睾丸组织的显著病理损伤,主要靶向生殖细胞和支持细胞。睾丸支持细胞在睾丸发育和精子发生中起着核心作用。在出生后早期,支持细胞的快速增殖是生精小管正常发育所必需的[35],其最终数量直接决定了成年睾丸中生殖细胞和间质细胞的规模[36]-[38]。此外,支持细胞作为“母细胞”通过其独特的细胞骨架(特别是微管)在精子发生过程中为发育中的生殖细胞提供物理支撑和营养[39]。研究表明,TBBPA暴露可导致小鼠生精小管面积减少、支持细胞与精原细胞数量下降,并引起细胞骨架损伤及相关标记基因表达下调[40]。这种早期暴露导致的细胞增殖减少,可能是成年期睾丸功能不良的关键诱因之一。

在精子发生层面,TBBPA暴露可导致精子形态异常、活力降低、数量减少[41]。其作用机制是多方面的:一是通过干扰睾酮等关键激素的正常分泌,损害睾丸功能,从而影响精子发生[20];二是诱导氧化应激,破坏细胞内氧化还原平衡,导致ROS积累,从而造成精子DNA和膜结构损伤[42];三是对精子DNA产生直接的遗传毒性影响,可能导致精子遗传物质异常,进而损害精子形态和功能,影响受精及胚胎发育潜能[43];四是诱导各级生精细胞(包括精原干细胞)发生凋亡,直接减少功能性精子的产出[44]

3.3. TBBPA的生殖发育毒性

生命早期(胎儿期、哺乳期)是生殖系统分化和发育的关键窗口期,对内分泌干扰物尤为敏感[45]。研究表明,孕期母体暴露于双酚A等类似物,即使剂量较低,也可透过胎盘屏障影响雄性胎儿的生殖系统编程[46]。暴露子代可能出现肛门生殖器距离(anogenital distance, AGD)缩短、睾丸下降延迟、乳头保留等雌性化表型。更严重的是,这种发育期暴露的影响可能是持久甚至不可逆的,导致成年后睾丸体积减小、精子发生永久性损伤和生育力低下[47]。作为BPA的溴化衍生物,TBBPA同样具备明确的内分泌干扰活性,其发育期暴露可能对雄性生殖系统编程产生类似甚至更强的持久性危害。

4. TBBPA的毒性作用机制

4.1. 细胞骨架与血睾丸屏障完整性破坏

支持细胞的微管、微丝及中间纤维共同构成了血睾丸屏障(blood-testis barrier, BTB)的骨架结构,对维持生精微环境的稳态至关重要[48]。TBBPA可通过扰乱支持细胞微管网络,破坏紧密连接蛋白(如Occludin、ZO-1)的正常定位,导致BTB完整性丧失,并延迟小鼠睾丸出生后发育[41]。研究表明,微管骨架是TBBPA最敏感的细胞内靶点之一,其解聚能直接触发紧密连接重塑与生精小管结构松散,成为早期生殖毒性关键事件[40] [41]。进一步研究揭示,支持细胞通过微管–肌动蛋白骨架的重塑来调控管周肌样细胞(peritubular myoid cell, PMC)的命运,并维持BTB的完整性,骨架破坏可直接导致屏障出现缝隙和PMC层松散[36]。此外,微管网络的破坏还会阻碍囊泡运输,导致雄激素结合蛋白(androgen-binding protein, ABP)分泌减少,使间质液中的雄激素浓度梯度消失,从而进一步抑制减数分裂进程[49]。由此可见,细胞骨架紊乱是TBBPA破坏BTB结构与功能的核心机制,也为开发靶向微管动力学的保护剂提供了理论依据。

4.2. 氧化应激与线粒体损伤

氧化应激是TBBPA诱导生殖毒性的重要核心机制。睾丸组织代谢活跃且富含多不饱和脂肪酸,对氧化损伤尤为敏感[50]。TBBPA在细胞内代谢过程中产生ROS,同时消耗谷胱甘肽(glutathione, GSH)等抗氧化物质,从而打破氧化/抗氧化平衡[51]。过量的ROS会攻击脂质、蛋白质和DNA,引发脂质过氧化、线粒体功能损伤和DNA断裂[52]。具体而言,氧化应激可通过抑制睾丸SIRT3-FOXO3-MnSOD轴,削弱线粒体抗氧化防御能力,导致线粒体膜电位崩溃、ATP合成受阻,最终诱发生精细胞凋亡,直接损害精子发生过程,降低精子数量与活力[53]。研究表明,使用MitoQ、Mito-TEMPO、SS-31肽等线粒体靶向抗氧化剂可有效清除ROS、恢复线粒体膜电位与ATP合成,显著改善精子运动能力、膜完整性和DNA完整性,这为干预氧化应激相关的雄性不育提供了直接证据[54]。TBBPA诱导的线粒体损伤具有枢纽地位[55]。在人类精子发生模型中,TBBPA处理可显著降低线粒体膜电位[17]。在精子中,位于中段的线粒体在ROS攻击下发生膜脂质过氧化,可导致鞭毛结构异常与活力下降[56]。此外,TBBPA暴露能显著升高CD1小鼠睾丸ROS水平,抑制线粒体呼吸链及膜电位相关基因(如Ndufs1、Cox4i2)的表达,从而触发线粒体途径的凋亡级联反应[44]。因此,氧化应激驱动的线粒体功能障碍已被确认为TBBPA诱导精原细胞凋亡的早期关键事件。

4.3. 细胞凋亡与程序性坏死

在睾丸中,生精细胞和支持细胞都可能发生程序性死亡。环境毒物诱导的精原细胞死亡是决定雄性生育力的关键节点[57]。Zhang 等人研究发现TBBPA暴露可上调小鼠睾丸组织中促凋亡蛋白(如Bax、caspase-3/8)的表达,下调抗凋亡蛋白(如Bcl-2)的表达并增加TUNEL阳性精原细胞数量[40]。Kawamura 等人也证实TBBPA能以剂量依赖性方式,升高CD1小鼠睾丸中caspase-3/8的活性,同时激活线粒体途径与死亡受体途径的凋亡级联。此外,它还能下调抗程序性坏死基因Bcl2与Ripk3的表达,提示TBBPA可能同时触发凋亡–坏死混合死亡模式,共同引起精原细胞的凋亡,导致生精细胞大量丢失[44]。有研究首次揭示,TBBPA可诱导猪睾丸支持细胞系(swine testicular cell line, ST)发生凋亡–坏死混合死亡模式,而褪黑素则能通过抑制PTEN/PI3K/AKT通路,阻断TBBPA触发的线粒体凋亡级联和RIPK1/RIPK3介导的程序性坏死,从而显著降低细胞死亡[58]。该发现为拮抗TBBPA的生殖毒性提供了新的干预靶点。

4.4. 表观遗传调控

环境内分泌干扰物可通过影响DNA甲基化、组蛋白修饰及非编码RNA等表观遗传途径,重塑精子发生程序,实现“体细胞暴露–生殖细胞记忆–跨代传递”的效应。研究表明,TBBPA可通过降低DNA甲基化酶表达(如DNMT1/3A)的表达,导致TR和ER启动子区域发生去甲基化,使其mRNA水平持续下调[59]。这揭示了受体基因启动子甲基化状态是其表观遗传调控的敏感靶点。在人肝细胞癌细胞系2 (human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line 2, HepG2)中,低剂量长期暴露于TBBPA可降低DNA甲基化酶(DNMT1/3A)的表达,使甲状腺激素通路关键基因(DIO1、TRβ)的启动子去甲基化并下调其转录,表明表观遗传重编程是TBBPA干扰甲状腺轴的早期事件[60]。该研究将TBBPA诱导的雄性生殖发育阻滞与睾丸特异性DNA甲基化模式改变直接关联起来。综上,表观遗传重编程是TBBPA低剂量长期暴露导致雄性生殖损伤的核心机制之一,也为开发DNA甲基化调节剂或miRNA拮抗剂等新型干预策略提供了潜在靶点。

5. 讨论

作为一种全球性广泛应用的溴代阻燃剂,TBBPA的环境残留与生物蓄积已对雄性生殖健康构成潜在且多层次的威胁。本综述系统梳理的现有证据表明,TBBPA的雄性生殖毒性并非由单一机制驱动,而是源于内分泌干扰、细胞骨架与血睾丸屏障破坏、氧化应激、程序性细胞死亡及表观遗传重编程等多种通路相互作用形成的复杂毒理网络。需要指出的是,上述认识主要建立在啮齿类动物模型和体外实验研究的基础之上,其向人类健康风险外推仍存在一定不确定性。

尽管关于TBBPA雄性生殖毒性的机制性证据相对充分,近年来也仅有少量人群流行病学研究开始关注其与男性生殖健康指标之间的潜在关联[20] [61]。生物监测结果显示,TBBPA可在成人男性血清、尿液及精液中被检出,提示其具备直接作用于男性生殖系统的生物学可行性[62]。部分横断面研究在普通人群或职业暴露人群中发现,体内TBBPA负荷升高与精子浓度、总精子数或精子活力下降存在一定相关性,并伴随血清睾酮或黄体生成素水平的改变,提示其可能通过内分泌干扰影响精子发生过程[61]。然而,也有研究未观察到TBBPA暴露水平与精液参数之间的显著统计学关联,或仅在高暴露分位人群或合并其他内分泌干扰物暴露的亚组中呈现弱相关[63]

上述流行病学研究结果的不一致性,可能与研究设计差异、样本量有限、暴露评估方法不统一以及混合暴露混杂因素难以充分控制等因素密切相关。尤其值得注意的是,大多数研究依赖单次生物样本测定TBBPA水平,难以准确反映个体长期内暴露负荷,而精子发生具有较长的生物学周期,这可能导致真实效应被低估。因此,当前人群证据尚不足以建立TBBPA暴露与男性生殖损伤之间的明确因果关系,但其趋势性结果在一定程度上支持了动物实验的发现,并提示该领域仍存在显著的研究空白。

6. 总结

TBBPA的雄性生殖毒性是一个涉及多系统、多通路相互作用的复杂公共卫生问题。现有研究表明,TBBPA可通过内分泌干扰、破坏睾丸结构稳态、诱导氧化应激与细胞死亡以及重塑表观遗传程序等多重机制,损害精子发生和雄性生殖功能,且其影响可能具有低剂量效应和潜在的跨代风险。然而,目前的风险评估仍主要依赖动物模型和单一化合物暴露假设,人群流行病学证据及混合暴露情境下的毒性效应仍明显不足。

未来研究亟需整合从分子机制、动物模型到人群研究的多层次证据,重点加强前瞻性队列研究、长期暴露评估及真实环境混合暴露条件下的毒理学分析,以更准确地揭示TBBPA在现实暴露场景中的生殖健康风险。这将为制定科学合理的环境管控标准和干预策略提供坚实依据,并最终服务于男性生殖健康保护与人类种群可持续发展的长远目标。

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