|
[1]
|
Morgan, I.G., French, A.N., Ashby, R.S., Guo, X., Ding, X., He, M., et al. (2018) The Epidemics of Myopia: Aetiology and Prevention. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 62, 134-149.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.09.004
|
|
[2]
|
Holden, B.A., Fricke, T.R., Wilson, D.A., et al. (2016) Global Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia and Temporal Trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmology, 123, 1036-1042.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.01.006
|
|
[3]
|
Pan, W., Saw, S.M., Wong, T.Y., et al. (2025) Prevalence and Temporal Trends in Myopia and High Myopia Children in China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Projections from 2020 to 2050. The Lancet Regional Health—Western Pacific, 55, Article 101484.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2025.101484
|
|
[4]
|
Haarman, A.E.G., Enthoven, C.A., Tideman, J.W.L., Tedja, M.S., Verhoeven, V.J.M. and Klaver, C.C.W. (2020) The Complications of Myopia: A Review and Meta-Analysis. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 61, 49.
https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.61.4.49
|
|
[5]
|
Shah, R., Vlasak, N. and Evans, B.J.W. (2024) High Myopia: Reviews of Myopia Control Strategies and Myopia Complications. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 44, 1248-1260.
https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.13366
|
|
[6]
|
Huang, J., Wen, D., Wang, Q., McAlinden, C., Flitcroft, I., Chen, H., et al. (2016) Efficacy Comparison of 16 Interventions for Myopia Control in Children: A Network Meta-Analysis. Ophthalmology, 123, 697-708.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.11.010
|
|
[7]
|
Chua, W.H., Balakrishnan, V., Chan, Y.H., et al. (2006) Atropine for the Treatment of Childhood Myopia. Ophthalmology, 113, 2285-2291.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.05.062
|
|
[8]
|
Ha, A., Kim, S.J., Shim, S.R., Kim, Y.K. and Jung, J.H. (2022) Efficacy and Safety of 8 Atropine Concentrations for Myopia Control in Children: A Network Meta-Analysis. Ophthalmology, 129, 322-333.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.10.016
|
|
[9]
|
Li, Y., Yip, M., Ning, Y., Chung, J., Toh, A., Leow, C., et al. (2024) Topical Atropine for Childhood Myopia Control: The Atropine Treatment Long-Term Assessment Study. JAMA Ophthalmology, 142, 15-23.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2023.5467
|
|
[10]
|
Yam, J.C., Jiang, Y., Tang, S.M., Law, A.K.P., Chan, J.J., Wong, E., et al. (2019) Low-Concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) Study: A Randomized, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Trial of 0.05%, 0.025%, and 0.01% Atropine Eye Drops in Myopia Control. Ophthalmology, 126, 113-124.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.05.029
|
|
[11]
|
Yam, J.C., Zhang, X.J., Zhang, Y., Yip, B.H.K., Tang, F., Wong, E.S., et al. (2023) Effect of Low-Concentration Atropine Eyedrops vs Placebo on Myopia Incidence in Children: The LAMP2 Randomized Clinical Trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 329, 472-481.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.24162
|
|
[12]
|
Upadhyay, A. and Beuerman, R.W. (2020) Biological Mechanisms of Atropine Control of Myopia. Eye & Contact Lens: Science & Clinical Practice, 46, 129-135.
https://doi.org/10.1097/icl.0000000000000677
|
|
[13]
|
McBrien, N.A., Moghaddam, H.O. and Reeder, A.P. (1993) Atropine Reduces Experimental Myopia and Eye Enlargement via a Nonaccommodative Mechanism. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 34, 205-215.
|
|
[14]
|
Arumugam, B. and McBrien, N.A. (2012) Muscarinic Antagonist Control of Myopia: Evidence for M4 and M1 Receptor-Based Pathways in the Inhibition of Experimentally-Induced Axial Myopia in the Tree Shrew. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 53, 5827-5837.
https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.12-9943
|
|
[15]
|
McBrien, N.A., Arumugam, B., Gentle, A., Chow, A. and Sahebjada, S. (2011) The M4 Muscarinic Antagonist MT-3 Inhibits Myopia in Chick: Evidence for Site of Action. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 31, 529-539.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-1313.2011.00841.x
|
|
[16]
|
Metlapally, R. and Wildsoet, C.F. (2015) Scleral Mechanisms Underlying Ocular Growth and Myopia. In: Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, Elsevier, 241-248.
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.05.005
|
|
[17]
|
Thomson, K., Kelly, T., Karouta, C., Morgan, I. and Ashby, R. (2021) Insights into the Mechanism by Which Atropine Inhibits Myopia: Evidence against Cholinergic Hyperactivity and Modulation of Dopamine Release. British Journal of Pharmacology, 178, 4501-4517.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.15629
|
|
[18]
|
Carr, B.J., Mihara, K., Ramachandran, R., Saifeddine, M., Nathanson, N.M., Stell, W.K., et al. (2018) Myopia-Inhibiting Concentrations of Muscarinic Receptor Antagonists Block Activation of Alpha2A-Adrenoceptors in Vitro. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 59, 2778-2791.
https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.17-22562
|
|
[19]
|
Mathis, U., Feldkaemper, M., Liu, H. and Schaeffel, F. (2022) Studies on the Interactions of Retinal Dopamine with Choroidal Thickness in the Chicken. Graefe’s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, 261, 409-425.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-022-05837-w
|
|
[20]
|
Carr, B.J. and Stell, W.K. (2016) Nitric Oxide (NO) Mediates the Inhibition of Form-Deprivation Myopia by Atropine in Chicks. Scientific Reports, 6, Article No. 9.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-016-0002-7
|
|
[21]
|
Ye, L., Shi, Y., Yin, Y., Li, S., He, J., Zhu, J., et al. (2020) Effects of Atropine Treatment on Choroidal Thickness in Myopic Children. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 61, 15.
https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.61.14.15
|
|
[22]
|
Navarra, P., Buzzonetti, L., Amico, V., Cro, M. and Federico, B. (2025) A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis on the Efficacy of 0.01% Atropine Eyedrops in Preventing Myopia Progression in Worldwide Children’s Populations. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 16, Article 1497667.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1497667
|
|
[23]
|
Saxena, R., Dhiman, R., Gupta, V., Kumar, P., Matalia, J., Roy, L., et al. (2021) Atropine for the Treatment of Childhood Myopia in India: Multicentric Randomized Trial. Ophthalmology, 128, 1367-1369.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.01.026
|
|
[24]
|
Zadnik, K., Schulman, E., Flitcroft, I., Fogt, J.S., Blumenfeld, L.C., Fong, T.M., et al. (2024) Efficacy and Safety of 0.01% and 0.02% Atropine for the Treatment of Pediatric Myopia Progression over 3 Years: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Ophthalmology, 141, 990-999.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2023.2097
|
|
[25]
|
Yam, J.C., Li, F.F., Zhang, X., Tang, S.M., Yip, B.H.K., Kam, K.W., et al. (2020) Two-Year Clinical Trial of the Low-Concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) Study: Phase 2 Report. Ophthalmology, 127, 910-919.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.12.011
|
|
[26]
|
Yam, J.C., Zhang, X.J., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y.M., Tang, S.M., Li, F.F., et al. (2022) Three-Year Clinical Trial of Low-Concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) Study: Continued versus Washout: Phase 3 Report. Ophthalmology, 129, 308-321.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.10.002
|
|
[27]
|
Zhang, X.J., Zhang, Y., Yip, B.H.K., Kam, K.W., Tang, F., Ling, X., et al. (2024) Five-Year Clinical Trial of the Low-Concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) Study: Phase 4 Report. Ophthalmology, 131, 1011-1020.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2024.03.013
|
|
[28]
|
Wei, S., Li, S.M., An, W., et al. (2020) Safety and Efficacy of Low-Dose Atropine Eyedrops for the Treatment of Myopia Progression in Chinese Children: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Ophthalmology, 138, 1178-1184.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2020.3820
|
|
[29]
|
Cui, C., Li, X., Lyu, Y., Wei, L., Zhao, B., Yu, S., et al. (2021) Safety and Efficacy of 0.02% and 0.01% Atropine on Controlling Myopia Progression: A 2-Year Clinical Trial. Scientific Reports, 11, Article No. 22267.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-01708-2
|
|
[30]
|
He, M., Wang, H., Du, B., Han, D., Liu, L., Zhang, Z., et al. (2025) 0.01% Atropine for Myopia Prevention in Pre-Myopia (AMPP Study). Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 45, 1924-1934.
https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.70018
|
|
[31]
|
Zhu, Q., Chen, Y., Li, X., Xue, L., Zhang, X., Zhou, G., et al. (2026) Atropine Eye Drops in Childhood Myopia Control: A Review. International Journal of Medical Sciences, 23, 1431-1443.
https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.126651
|
|
[32]
|
Zaabaar, E., Zhang, Y., Kam, K.W., Zhang, X.J., Tham, C.C., Chen, L.J., et al. (2024) Low-Concentration Atropine for Controlling Myopia Onset and Progression in East Asia. Asia-Pacific Journal of Ophthalmology, 13, Article 100122.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjo.2024.100122
|
|
[33]
|
Zadnik, K., Schulman, E., Flitcroft, I., Fogt, J.S., Blumenfeld, L.C., Fong, T.M., et al. (2026) Negligible Rebound in Myopia Progression Following Cessation of Treatment with 0.01% Atropine for 3 Years: Year-4 Results from the CHAMP Phase 3 Clinical Trial. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 46, 626-634.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s44402-026-00064-w
|
|
[34]
|
Li, F.F., Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Yip, B.H.K., Tang, S.M., Kam, K.W., et al. (2021) Age Effect on Treatment Responses to 0.05%, 0.025%, and 0.01% Atropine: Low-Concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression Study. Ophthalmology, 128, 1180-1187.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2020.12.036
|
|
[35]
|
Chuang, M.N., Fang, P.C. and Wu, P.C. (2021) Stepwise Low Concentration Atropine for Myopic Control: A 10-Year Cohort Study. Scientific Reports, 11, Article No. 17344.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96698-6
|
|
[36]
|
Zhang, X.J., Zaabaar, E., French, A.N., Tang, F.Y., Kam, K.W., Tham, C.C., et al. (2025) Advances in Myopia Control Strategies for Children. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 109, 165-176.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo-2023-323887
|
|
[37]
|
Yam, J.C., Zhang, X.J., Zaabaar, E., Wang, Y., Gao, Y., Zhang, Y., et al. (2025) Interventions to Reduce Incidence and Progression of Myopia in Children and Adults. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 109, Article 101410.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2025.101410
|
|
[38]
|
Kinoshita, N., Konno, Y., Hamada, N., Kanda, Y., Shimmura-Tomita, M., Kaburaki, T., et al. (2020) Efficacy of Combined Orthokeratology and 0.01% Atropine Solution for Slowing Axial Elongation in Children with Myopia: A 2-Year Randomised Trial. Scientific Reports, 10, Article No. 12750.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69710-8
|
|
[39]
|
Wang, H., Piao, J., Yoo, G., et al. (2025) Investigation into the Therapeutic Efficacy and Inflammatory Modulatory Effects of the Combined Use of 0.01% Atropine Eye Drops and Orthokeratology Lenses in the Management of Myopia among Adolescent Patients. Journal of Inflammation Research, 18, 12077-12087.
https://doi.org/10.2147/jir.s539831
|
|
[40]
|
Tsai, H.R., Wang, J.H., Huang, H.K., et al. (2022) Efficacy of Atropine, Orthokeratology, and Combined Atropine with Orthokeratology for Childhood Myopia: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. JFMA, 121, 2490-2500.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfma.2022.05.005
|
|
[41]
|
Liu, J., Lu, Y., Huang, D., Yang, J., Fan, C., Chen, C., et al. (2023) The Efficacy of Defocus Incorporated Multiple Segments Lenses in Slowing Myopia Progression: Results from Diverse Clinical Circumstances. Ophthalmology, 130, 542-550.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2023.01.007
|
|
[42]
|
Huang, Z., Chen, X.F., He, T., et al. (2022) Synergistic Effects of Defocus-Incorporated Multiple Segments and Atropine in Slowing the Progression of Myopia. Scientific Reports, 12, Article No. 22311.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-25599-z
|
|
[43]
|
Tang, T., Lu, Y., Li, X., Zhao, H., Wang, K., Li, Y., et al. (2024) Comparison of the Long-Term Effects of Atropine in Combination with Orthokeratology and Defocus Incorporated Multiple Segment Lenses for Myopia Control in Chinese Children and Adolescents. Eye, 38, 1660-1667.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-02987-5
|
|
[44]
|
Gong, Q., Janowski, M., Luo, M., Wei, H., Chen, B., Yang, G., et al. (2017) Efficacy and Adverse Effects of Atropine in Childhood Myopia: A Meta-Analysis. JAMA Ophthalmology, 135, 624-630.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2017.1091
|
|
[45]
|
Fu, A., Stapleton, F., Wei, L., Wang, W., Zhao, B., Watt, K., et al. (2020) Effect of Low-Dose Atropine on Myopia Progression, Pupil Diameter and Accommodative Amplitude: Low-Dose Atropine and Myopia Progression. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 104, 1535-1541.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2019-315440
|
|
[46]
|
Kothari, M., Jain, R., Khadse, N., Rathod, V. and Mutha, S. (2018) Allergic Reactions to Atropine Eye Drops for Retardation of Progressive Myopia in Children. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, 66, 1446-1450.
https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.ijo_165_18
|
|
[47]
|
Chia, A., Chua, W.H., Cheung, Y.B., et al. (2012) Atropine for the Treatment of Childhood Myopia: Safety and Efficacy of 0.5%, 0.1%, and 0.01% Doses (Atropine for the Treatment of Myopia 2). Ophthalmology, 119, 347-354.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.07.031
|
|
[48]
|
Liu, Y.L., Tsai, J.Y., Chiu, K.Y., et al. (2025) JAMA Ophthalmology, 143, 855-863.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2025.3090
|
|
[49]
|
Tong, L., Huang, X.L., Koh, A.L.T., Zhang, X., Tan, D.T.H. and Chua, W. (2009) Atropine for the Treatment of Childhood Myopia: Effect on Myopia Progression after Cessation of Atropine. Ophthalmology, 116, 572-579.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.10.020
|
|
[50]
|
Chia, A., Lu, Q.S. and Tan, D. (2016) Five-Year Clinical Trial on Atropine for the Treatment of Myopia 2: Myopia Control with Atropine 0.01% Eyedrops. Ophthalmology, 123, 391-399.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.07.004
|
|
[51]
|
Zhang, X.J., Liu, M., Yu, M., Ho, E.C.F., Wong, R.T.C., Zaabaar, E., et al. (2026) Efficacy, Tolerability, and Threshold Effect of Atropine Eye Drops for Myopia Control: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis. Survey of Ophthalmology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2026.04.002
|