差异易感性个体的注意偏向性
Attention Bias of Susceptible Individuals
DOI: 10.12677/AP.2021.112058, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 413  浏览: 927 
作者: 李喜乐:西南大学心理学部,重庆
关键词: 注意的选择性注意偏向ABM程序差异易感性Attention Selectivity Attention Bias ABM Procedure Differential Susceptibility
摘要: 差异易感性理论指儿童对环境影响的敏感性存在差异,其中一些易感性个体不仅对积极环境更敏感而且更易受到消极环境的影响。这种差异性对于个体的注意偏向存在影响,它可能会影响个体对于事物的注意偏好,也会对注意修改产生影响。本文基于注意偏向,探讨了差异易感性个体对环境敏感的内部机制。
Abstract: The theory of differential susceptibility refers to differences in children’s sensitivity to environ-mental impacts, and some of these susceptible individuals are not only more sensitive to positive environments, but also more susceptible to negative environments. This difference has an impact on the individual’s attentional bias, which may affect the individual’s attention to things, and also affect the attention bias modification. Based on attention bias, this paper discussed the internal mechanism of environmental sensitivity of different susceptible individuals.
文章引用:李喜乐 (2021). 差异易感性个体的注意偏向性. 心理学进展, 11(2), 519-526. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2021.112058

1. 差异易感性模型

1.1. 差异易感性理论的发展

20世纪60年代,Rosenthal提出的素质压力模型主要用于解释病理性疾病的病因,指出部分个体由于受到基因、神经、行为层面的“脆弱性(vulnerability)”特质影响,当他们被暴露于不利的、高风险的环境中,他们的发展更容易受到这些不利因素的影响,表现出病理症状。因此,很长一段时间内,这些个体被称之为“脆弱性”个体。然而,近年来,研究者提出了另一种环境与个体特质交互作用的模型——差别易感性模型,认为在以往研究中发现的“脆弱性”个体应该被视为“敏感性”个体,因为他们对环境中各类刺激都更加敏感,他们不仅更容易受到负性、不利环境的影响,也更容易受到积极、有利环境的影响。差别易感性模型假设主要基于两种截然不同但又不互相排斥的理论——环境生理敏感性理论(Biological Sensitivity to Context Theory, BSC)和差别易感性理论(Differential Susceptibility Theory, DST)。首先是在1995年Boyce等发表在《Psychomatic Medicine》上的结果令人震惊:自主和肾上腺皮质反应性越强的儿童在压力环境下会表现出更差的健康状态;但在支持性的积极环境中,他们的健康状况比其他儿童要更良好。基于这一实证基础,Boyce发展了生理敏感性理论,认为个体的可塑性(plasticity)是由个体神经生理特征所影响的。几乎同时,Belsky (1997)提出了差别易感性的理论模型,受到进化过程中对未来的不确定性,儿童对受到环境影响的易感性是有个体差异的,以此减少环境的不确定性带来的风险。这两种理论都是基于进化观点提出并解释个体为什么以及如何对环境的敏感性产生巨大的个体差异。

为什么会出现“敏感性”儿童?Boyce和Ellis (2005)强调环境的影响,他们认为压力–反应系统是一种条件适应,使个体从生命早期开始适应环境,这种适应功能可以调整个体对环境的生物敏感性水平,以此来匹配生命早期遇到的家庭生态条件。因此,他们认为处于高支持性和高非支持性成长背景下的儿童应该维持高水平的神经和内分泌系统反应,这种更强的生理反应敏感性就是一种易感性因素。而从进化论的角度出发,Belsky (1997)在不否认环境影响可塑性的可能性的前提下推测,个体的发展可塑性因遗传原因而异。广泛的跨物种证据也表明可塑性是可遗传的(Bashey, 2006; Pigliucci, 2007)。

1.2. 差异易感性标志物

在过去几十年的研究中,研究者主要关注于特质与环境交互作用的方式,寻找差异易感性的标志物。

首先,验证差异易感性模型的实证研究最主要来自于探索家庭教养行为与儿童气质特征之间的交互作用的研究。这些研究又尤其关注于儿童的消极情绪性气质(negative emotionality)——个体容易体会到焦虑、恐惧、愤怒等负性情绪的心理倾向(Putnam et al., 2001)。基于美国NICHD SECCYD项目对全美1,364组家庭的追踪研究,研究者发现,相比于低消极情绪的儿童,高消极情绪性的儿童更容易受到母亲的抑郁症状的影响(Dix & Yan, 2014),而如果这些高消极情绪性的儿童在童年早期拥有高敏感性的教养环境,他们在11岁时有更高的学业和社交能力(Pluess & Belsky, 2010)。在中国的样本中,研究者也发现高消极情绪性的学前儿童更易受高父亲心理控制的不利影响,也更易受低父亲心理控制的有利影响(高鑫,丁碧蕾,冯姝慧,邢淑芬,2018)。

其次,在个体神经生理的反应性层面,研究者发现儿童的呼吸性窦性心律不齐(respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA)可能是一个潜在的差别易感性指标。RSA是迷走神经活动水平的主要指标,它反应了呼吸周期内个体呼气时和吸气时心率的变异性,反应了个体保持身心平衡状态,集中注意力投入到社会交往中的程度。而基线RSA水平在过去的研究中被发现与儿童的情绪调控能力、积极的社会参与、亲社会性等都存在正相关(Geisler et al., 2013; Eisenberg et al., 2015; 张润竹等,2018)。在整合过去30年关于各种发展结果的数据(Boyce et al., 1995; Obradović & Boyce, 2009; Obradović et al., 2010),研究者发现以实验室情境中的RSA基线水平为易感性指标,当高RSA基线水平儿童在高压和困境的生长环境下成长时,他们有最高的发展处病理症状的可能性;而在没有压力、低逆境的环境下,他们有最低的疾病发病率;相反,80%~85%的低RSA儿童表现出对环境的不敏感性。在婴儿样本中,Conradt等人(2013)用较高的基线RSA水平作为婴儿对环境的敏感性指标,发现高度敏感的婴儿在安全依恋的教养环境中,他们在17个月的时候有更少的问题行为;在紊乱依恋类型的环境中生长,他们之后会有更多的行为问题。Eisenberg等(2012)发现在18个月有高RSA基线水平的儿童当教养环境质量提高时,他们在54个月的时候有更少的攻击性行为;然而这种预测作用在低RSA儿童中并没有发现。在青少年样本中,研究者发现与低RSA基线水平的女孩相比,高基线RSA水平的女孩更容易受益于高质量的亲子关系、父母支持程度(Van der Graaff et al., 2016)。值得注意的是,这些研究中大都选用的是环境中的压力和负性事件作为环境质量指标,将低压力水平等同于积极养育环境去探索RSA活动性对压力源的反应情况。

在基因层面,支持差异易感性的证据主要集中于5-羟色胺转运体多态性(5-HTTLPR)、多巴胺 D4 受体基因(DRD4)和单胺氧化酶A基因(MAOA)。例如,元分析发现携带5-HTTLPR短等位基因的成人在压力环境下会增加罹患抑郁症状的风险(Karg et al., 2011)。而在青少年样本中,携带两个短等位基因的青少年在消极的、非支持性的教养环境中表现出低水平的积极情感,而在积极的、支持性的教养环境中表现出高水平的积极情感(Hankin et al., 2011; 张卫,甄霜菊,2013)。同时,多巴胺受体D4(DRD4)7-重复等位基因的存在也被发现是可能的差别易感性指标。对于没有DRD47重复等位基因的儿童来说,依恋安全性、敏感教养环境对助人行为和外显行为没有影响,但是对于DRD47-重复等位基因的儿童而言,安全依恋可以预测捐赠给儿童基金会的钱会更多,母亲敏感性也能预测其更少的问题行为(Bakermans-Kranenburg & van Ijzendoorn, 2011; Windhorst et al., 2015)。

感觉加工敏感性(Sensory Processing Sensitivity, SPS)作为差异易感性标志物,被认为是从成人认知过程和情绪反应的个体间差异的角度和研究发展起来的(Aron & Aron, 1997)。其代表一种由基因所决定的被更强烈的情绪反应所导致的更强烈、更深入地处理各种信息的倾向(Aron et al., 2012; Acevedo et al., 2018)。对于学前儿童的研究表明,家长问卷报告的感觉加工敏感性被发现可以调节积极教养行为对儿童外显问题的影响,即相比于低感觉加工敏感性的儿童,高感觉加工敏感性的儿童受到积极教养行为时会出现更少的问题行为(Slagt et al., 2018)。而且感觉加工敏感性还可以调节教养方式对儿童社会能力的影响(Lionetti et al., 2019);对青少年的研究发现,比起低SPS的女孩,高SPS的女孩更易从干预心理问题的项目中受益(Nocentini et al., 2018; Pluess & Boniwell, 2015; Aron et al., 2012);对于成人的回溯性研究表明,经历恶劣童年环境的高感觉加工敏感性的个体会更容易出现问题行为和心理疾病(Aron et al., 2005; Booth et al., 2015),但当高SPS的个体在经历一个积极的童年时会出现更多的积极情绪和较少的心理问题(Pluess & Boniwell, 2015; Slagt et al., 2018)。

2. 注意偏向

注意偏向(Attention Bias)指人们在接收外界信息时,因对某些特定的信息具有较高敏感度而出现的选择性注意(Bar-Haim et al., 2007)。注意偏向的产生存在以下几个解释:Fox对焦虑个体的注意偏向研究得出,注意偏向的产生一方面可能是因为个体在注意的定向阶段已经被威胁性刺激吸引到了相应的位置上,即注意的定向加速;另一方面可能是因为个体在注意的后期被威胁刺激破坏了注意维持时间或解除能力,致使在威胁刺激上停留时间过长,即注意解除困难(Fox et al., 2002)。图式理论(Markus, 1977)则强调,个体从经验建立的自我图式,选择与自身经验相匹配的信息进行优先加工,是产生注意偏向的根本。正如研究发现(刘爱书,王春梅,2014;Gibb et al., 2009),受虐待个体对负性信息存在注意偏向。还有研究表明,当目标中存在情绪刺激时,个体将更多的注意分配给了情绪刺激(史娟等,2014;Stein et al., 2009),表现为个体对情绪刺激的注意捕获(Anderson, 2005)。对于情绪性材料来说,负面材料比正面材料具有更强的吸引力,即注意偏向程度更大(Fox et al., 2000)。这意味着,与中性基线相比,注意力偏向负面,特别是与威胁相关的材料通常强于对正面信息的偏见。

还有研究者认为注意偏向是在评价和注意水平上的特定价值认知操作的结果。焦虑的认知–动机模型(Mogg & Bradley, 2002)以及一些神经性数据也表明价值偏向的想法存在的合理性(Alexandre et al., 2013)。

3. 差异易感性个体的注意偏向性

差异易感性个体对于环境的易感性特质可能来源于易感性个体对于环境的注意偏差性。正如认知偏差理论表明(Fox & Beevers, 2016),这种高敏感性的特质可以与环境相互作用形成认知偏差,使得高敏感性的个体在积极的环境更容易形成对积极信息的注意偏差,从而有利于个体的发展结果,相反,当高敏感性个体生活在消极环境中时可能会更容易形成对消极信息的注意偏差,从而损害个体的发展。

正如来自基因层面的标志物的研究发现,更具有可塑性的神经回路可能会在逆境中导致负面结果,但在环境支持时也有可能获得积极的收益(Belsky et al., 2009; Homberg & Lesch, 2011)。Fox等人(2011)在2011年发现5-HTTLPR基因的低表达形式相对于具有高表达的那些人,会对正性和负性情感图片产生更强的注意偏差。然而值得注意的是,负面材料比正面材料具有更强的吸引力(Fox et al., 2000)。虽然可塑性可能同时对负面和正面信息起作用,但注意力通常会对负性信息更加注意。最近的一项研究表明,在恐惧条件反射范式中,5-羟色胺短等位基因携带者比纯合子更快地获得恐惧反应(Lonsdorf et al., 2009),这支持了5-羟色胺短等位基因型的人对恐惧威胁相关线索更敏感的观点(Beevers et al., 2010; Fox et al., 2011)。由于恐惧学习是威胁发展的注意力偏差的主要机制(Pischek-Simpson et al., 2009; Yates et al., 2010),我们可以推测5-羟色胺短等位基因携带者可以对环境中更负面的信息产生偏见。研究表明,自动选择性偏差将注意力转向负材料可以更好地预测4个月后的应激反应性(Fox et al., 2010)。而且来自多巴胺基因的研究表明,多巴胺基因与注意机制相关联。研究发现多巴胺系统参与注意力,动机和奖励机制(Robbins & Everitt, 1999),较低的多巴胺信号传导阻碍了基于负反馈的学习(Klein et al., 2007),并且与对即时强化物的强烈偏好有关(Wickens et al., 2007)。多巴胺D4受体基因通过它们对注意力和奖励机制的影响使得儿童更容易受到负面育儿的影响,而这也可能会成为支持性家庭环境促进儿童发展的易感基因。

4. 注意偏向修改

MacLeod等人(2002)首次证明,注意力的选择性偏差可以通过简单的计算机化技术进行修改,并且威胁偏差的诱导会导致应激反应,而良性偏见的诱导导致情绪脆弱性的降低。这些发现很重要,因为它们为应力脆弱性中偏向注意的因果性提供了证据;实验诱导的偏差改变了应激反应。他们的注意偏差修改(ABM)技术涉及参与者需要识别一个运动探针,它可能在两个单词呈现后立即出现在计算机屏幕上的两个位置之一中,其中一个是否定的(例如,失败,羞辱),其中一个是中性的(例如,地毯)。为了培养对负面词的注意力,关键探针总是出现在先前由负面词占据的位置,而为了引起良性偏差,探针总是出现在先前由中性词占据的位置。这个ABM任务的变量已经在一系列焦虑症中进行了测试,并且已经证明可以减少与威胁相关的偏倚,并在临床症状方面产生明显的改善(Bar-Haim, 2010)。注意偏倚修改技术表明,注意力偏差是高度可塑的,可能为焦虑症提供新的治疗策略(Hakamata et al., 2010)。

5. 注意偏向修改的差异易感性

如果说注意偏向的差异易感性是指个体对事物的注意偏向的程度的存在不同,那么注意偏向修改的差异易感性就是指个体受修改性程度的容易性程度。研究表明,相对于血清素转运蛋白基因(5-羟色胺转运蛋白基因)的高表达形式,具有低表达的人中ABM后注意偏向的变化更大。这种对环境突发事件的认知可塑性解释了为什么短等位基因携带者(即低表达)更快地学习恐惧并发展对威胁更敏感的神经回路(Hariri et al., 2002; Lonsdorf et al., 2009)。直接支持5-羟色胺转运蛋白基因的低表达形式被认为是可塑性的观点。

6. 未来展望

对于差异易感性的研究有助于帮助我们对在家庭养育、教育实践中制定更为有效的干预项目提供重要的指示,真正实现“因材施教”,实现环境和个体特质的“匹配”。大多数的研究把关注点放在了识别敏感性儿童身上,却忽视了对其易感性特质背后机制的探讨。所以未来可以从以下几点进行深入探讨:首先,根据本文中所提及的注意偏向与差异易感性理论的关系,运用注意偏向来证明差异易感性理论以及探索其背后的认知机制,可以成为未来的研究方向之一。其次,可以尝试从认知神经领域进行探索。SPS作为敏感性标志物开始引起人们的关注。其被概念化为个体的感知觉的敏感性。对于SPS的研究表明,其与情感、视知觉、注意等有关的脑区的激活水平存在关系,如杏仁核和前额叶等。这进一步提示我们,敏感性的个体背后可能是一个敏感的神经系统。注意偏向的脑成像研究表明,注意偏向与前额叶皮层有关(Bishop, 2009)。并且注意力控制模型认为,修改注意偏向需要在背外侧前额叶皮质的驱动下改变注意力控制。也有神经方面的数据表明增强的杏仁核活性与注意偏向有关(Davis & Whalen, 2001)。这都说明了注意偏向的神经机制与易感性标记物SPS之间可能存在一定的关联。这值得我们进一步的探究两者之间的关系。因此,我们认为差异易感性理论与认知控制领域的碰撞,会让我们更好的了解差异易感性理论,以及其背后的认知神经机制。

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