老年患者术后谵妄的研究进展
Research Progress of Postoperative Delirium in Perioperative Elderly Patients
DOI: 10.12677/ACM.2023.133422, PDF, HTML, XML,    科研立项经费支持
作者: 杜张鑫*, 边步荣#, 高彦东:延安大学医学院,陕西 延安
关键词: 老年患者谵妄机制预防影响因素分型Elderly Patients Delirium Mechanism Prevention Influencing Factors Parting
摘要: 术后谵妄是老年患者术后常见的一种并发症,主要表现为认知功能降低、记忆力受损、定向力障碍、睡眠–觉醒周期紊乱等。同时增加了患者围术期不良事件的发生,甚至危及生命,延长了住院时间,增加了医疗费用。但目前对于老年患者术后谵妄的相关研究争议较大,临床医师重视不足,多数患者未能得到及时有效的预防及治疗。本文参考国内外相关研究文献,总结了老年患者术后谵妄的发生率、临床表现、发病机制、影响因素及防治措施,为临床防治提供一定的参考。
Abstract: Postoperative delirium is a common complication of elderly patients after surgery, which is mainly manifested as decreased cognitive function, impaired memory, disorientation, sleep-wake cycle disorder, etc. Postoperative delirium increases the occurrence of perioperative adverse events, even endangers life, prolongs hospital stay and increases medical costs. However, at present, the research on postoperative delirium in elderly patients is controversial. Clinicians pay insufficient attention to it, and most patients fail to receive timely and effective prevention and treatment. This article, referring to the relevant research literature at home and abroad, summarizes the incidence, clinical manifestations, pathogenesis, influencing factors and prevention and treatment measures of postoperative delirium in elderly patients, providing a certain reference for clinical prevention and treatment.
文章引用:杜张鑫, 边步荣, 高彦东. 老年患者术后谵妄的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2023, 13(3): 2977-2984. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2023.133422

1. 引言

术后谵妄(POD, Postoperative Delirium)是指患者在术后一周内发生的注意力和意识障碍,主要表现为认知功能降低、记忆力受损、定向力障碍、睡眠–觉醒周期紊乱等,是老年患者术后常见的一种并发症 [1] [2] 。目前由于临床医师对POD重视不足,导致部分患者不能得到及时治疗。本文综合国内外最新研究,总结了老年患者术后谵妄的危害性、临床表现、发病机制、影响因素及防治措施,为临床防治提供一定的参考。

2. 术后谵妄对老年患者的影响

POD在65岁以上老年患者中最易发生,北京协和医院研究显示,65岁以上非心脏手术患者POD发病率为11.1%,发病率排在前三位的手术类型为开颅手术(57.1%)、上腹部手术(18.1%)、开胸手术(16.3%) [3] 。POD对老年患者危害性较大,与老年患者死亡率之间有紧密相关性 [4] [5] ,但在临床中易被漏诊 [6] 。有研究显示,POD与老年患者短期认知功能损害有关 [7] ,甚至导致术后痴呆的发生 [4] 。在POD病例中30%~40%是可以预防的 [3] ,多数患者在致病因素去除后都会得到改善 [6] ,因此在临床中及时采取有效措施进行干预,对降低老年患者POD发生率有一定的意义。

3. 术后谵妄的临床表现及分型

POD根据临床表现分为3型,分别为活动抑制型(50%),表现为活动减少、警觉性降低、意识不清和语言缓慢;活动亢奋型(25%),表现为烦躁、走神、易怒和幻觉;混合型(25%),在短时间内既表现出抑制型的特征,又表现出活跃型的特征 [5] [8] [9] 。

高龄及基础疾病等高危因素,更易引发抑制型POD [10] ,但由于该类型POD没有明显的痛苦,相比亢奋型更容易被漏诊,延误治疗时机,增加不良事件的发生 [11] 。

4. 术后谵妄的发病机制

4.1. 神经炎性反应

现代研究认为,炎症反应是POD的关键发病机制之一。在POD患者中,应激反应导致免疫系统的促炎转移,白细胞水平显著升高 [12] 。如肿瘤坏死因子-α (TNF-α)、白细胞介素-6 (IL-6)、白细胞介素-8 (IL-8)、白细胞介素-10 (IL-10)、C-反应蛋白、促炎/抗炎比值(P/A)均明显升高,相反POD患者白细胞介素-12 (IL-12)的表达降低 [9] [13] [14] 。TNF-α和IL-6升高被认为是认知障碍的主要原因,在老年群体中更加明显 [15] 。TNF-α可以刺激其他促炎细胞的介质表达 [16] ,也参与外周组织和大脑之间的信号介导 [17] 。血清IL-6水平升高被认为是POD的一个重要指标,IL-6升高与神经元损伤之间呈直接相关 [18] 。

在全身炎症过程中,外周免疫细胞和小胶质细胞通过释放炎症相关因子介导神经元死亡和血脑屏障破坏,增加了血脑屏障的内皮通透性 [19] 。S100β蛋白是一种钙结合蛋白,与反应能力、记忆力等神经精神行为密切相关,是血脑屏障通透性增加的生物标志物 [20] 。主要由大脑星形胶质细胞分泌,而在POD患者中S100β的表达增加 [21] 。边步荣等作者之前通过科学的研究方案分析显示在不同麻醉因素的基础上,血清S100β蛋白水平的变化对预测术后认知障碍发生有一定的价值 [22] [23] [24] [25] 。

4.2. 神经递质反应

1) 胆碱能系统是大脑内重要的神经递质系统之一。研究表明,在认知障碍的患者中血浆和脑脊液中的乙酰胆碱水平较低 [26] 。许多人已经证明了一些具有抗胆碱能的药物会导致认知障碍作用 [27] 。乙酰胆碱的释放可抑制TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8的释放,所以胆碱能系统的抗炎作用对大脑炎症反应有保护作用 [27] [28] 。因此胆碱能活性降低会导致神经炎症,进而诱发POD。

2) 多巴胺(DA)的增加也是导致谵妄的原因。DA的升高主要通过三个途径导致神经行为改变:1) 直接兴奋作用;2) 通过氧化应激引起认知障碍;3) 调节增强谷氨酸,导致行为改变 [29] [30] [31] 。老年患者中,多巴胺受体丢失,多巴胺合成增加,DA合成和DA受体之间的平衡消失,DA的使用都是POD的危险因素 [32] 。

3) 谷氨酸是大脑中一种兴奋性递质,在认知功能和神经退行性疾病中起重要作用。γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)是中枢系统中的抑制性神经递质,在调节神经元兴奋性方面起重要作用 [33] 。5-羟色胺(5-HT)是调节认知、情绪和觉醒的另一种重要递质 [13] 。

在认知障碍的患者中,胆碱能和多巴胺能系统不仅相互作用,而且与谷氨酸和GABA途径相互作用,并且可能发生不可逆的神经元损伤 [33] [34] 。一些药物(如阿片类药物)能通过增加DA和GLU的活性而减少Ach的可获得性而导致POD的发生 [35] 。

4.3. 神经元老化

研究表明,大脑衰老的过程和机体的生理变化是POD的独立危险因素 [36] 。大脑神经元衰老与年龄相关的大脑应激神经递质变化、脑血流下降、血管密度降低、神经元丢失以及细胞内信号转导系统的丧失有关 [29] 。在老年人的大脑中,海马神经元被认为是认知障碍过程中的重要中介,可能会不成比例地影响突触功能的改变从而进一步导致大脑功能障碍 [37] 。大脑老化和认知障碍会在外周炎症后更容易激活大脑小胶质细胞 [38] 。相比年轻人,老年人缺乏生理储备越容易受到外界有害刺激的伤害,这似乎可以解释为什么老年人更有可能患上POD。

4.4. 神经内分泌作用

神经内分泌学说认为,皮质醇升高与机体整体认知功能较差有关,谵妄是对急性应激的反应,异常高的糖皮质激素(GC)水平导致认知障碍和异常行为,通过损害神经元的生存而导致脑神经元的脆弱性 [39] [40] 。糖皮质激素在大脑中具有促炎作用,尤其POD的患者,其基础皮质醇水平与非POD的患者相比有显著差异 [41] 。在术后7天内,由于外伤、疼痛及环境改变等因素的影响,机体内儿茶酚胺、GC、胰高血糖素等应激因子将会一直在比较高的水平,这些因子主要作用于海马中的相应受体,从而使海马神经元受损,进一步导致POD的发生 [42] 。

5. 术后谵妄的影响因素

通常POD是多种因素所引起的复杂问题,虽然POD的病因现在不是特别清楚,但是其影响因素已经有了很好的研究,根据围麻醉期的时间可将相关影响因素划分为术前、术中、术后。

5.1. 术前

通常术前因素主要与患者自身相关,65岁以上的患者更易发生POD,年龄每增加1岁谵妄的风险增加1.15倍 [43] 。高龄是POD发生的独立危险因素,术前合并高血压、肺部感染,低氧血症以及疼痛是导致老年患者POD的常见因素 [44] 。老年患者身体机能不断衰弱,更容易并发其他的诱发因素,如营养不良、术前合并认知功能障碍、脑器质病变(脑梗死)、ASA高分级、合并多种内科基础疾病、视听觉障碍、低白蛋白血症、贫血、睡眠紊乱等等都被认为是POD的术前易感因素 [45] [46] [47] 。与POD有关的类似术前危险因素还包括血清尿素升高、肌酐升高以及膀胱导管的使用 [12] 。

5.2. 术中管理

5.2.1. 麻醉方式

不同麻醉方式是否会导致不同手术的老年患者POD发生率增加,目前尚无足够高质量的证据,不同机构得出的结论各有不同。有研究发现,对非心脏手术的患者进行不同麻醉方法观察分析,没有确凿的证据能够证明全麻会对POD产生影响 [48] 。区域神经阻滞和椎管内麻醉相比于全麻有可能具有一定的优势,主要因为减少了静脉麻醉药物的使用,降低手术的应激反应 [49] 。不同麻醉方式对POD的影响是否有差异,当前还存在较大争议。

5.2.2. 术中监测及管理

在术中使用脑电双频指数(BIS)监测并合理调节麻醉深度,对脑神经元有正面保护作用,其发生爆发抑制或BIS指数过低都可能增加POD的发生 [50] 。有关非心脏患者术后的研究中,维持BIS在50~60会大大减低老年患者POD的发生 [51] 。BIS监测是术中潜在的预防POD的方法,尽管有不同的观点,但其优点不能被不同研究结果所忽略。

利用无创技术对脑氧饱和度进行监测,可以有效地评估与患者POD的相关性。一项回顾性研究观察了815例冠状动脉旁路移植术患者脑氧饱和度与谵妄的关系,结果显示术中病人脑氧饱和度的降低与POD有关 [52] 。患者术后的体温升高与POD发生率增加也有一定的相关性 [53] 。术中血压的升高或者降低均会增加POD的发生,血压低与多器官以及大脑供血不足有关,血压升高可能会激活交感神经进一步导致神经炎性反应 [54] [55] 。单纯观察血压与POD的关系,干扰因素太多,因此术中血压的维持管理与POD的关系将需要进一步研究。

5.2.3. 麻醉用药

一些麻醉药物的使用与POD呈一定的相关性,不论是静脉或吸入麻醉药都会对中枢神经系统有一定影响,进一步诱发POD的发生。如阿片类药物(主要为哌替啶)、抗胆碱类药物、苯二氮卓类药、氯胺酮、吸入麻醉药等都会导致POD的发生。阿托品会导致术后记忆力的下降,东莨菪碱对中枢抑制作用相比阿托品更加的明显。有研究发现,术前用盐酸戊乙奎醚对术后认知障碍的发生率显著低于阿托品组,不仅能有效的减少分泌物,且对心率血压影响较小 [56] 。咪达唑仑能够破坏记忆功能的稳定性,因产生顺行性遗忘作用而应用于麻醉中,可能造成老年患者记忆学习相关功能受损而导致POD。虽然有证据显示吸入麻醉药会产生中枢毒性作用,但临床实验中并未发现地氟烷或七氟烷会造成POD。有动物实验认为异氟烷将会增加POD的发生,但仍需进一步研究 [57] 。

5.3. 术后

老年患者术后多种因素会导致POD的发生,如感染、疼痛、电解质紊乱、睡眠障碍等都是高危因素。老年患者本身生理储备能力较差,外界有害刺激更容易导致谵妄发生,尤其术后疼痛与谵妄之间有着更密切的关系。一项前瞻性的研究发现,中重度疼痛及术后第1日疼痛程度升高均是术后谵妄的独立风险因素 [58] 。有研究发现帕瑞昔布钠超前镇痛、术中浸润镇痛联合术后舒芬太尼静脉镇痛较常规静脉镇痛比较,能够有效降低POD发生,可能与多模式镇痛中舒芬太尼用量减少以及帕瑞昔布钠抗炎作用有关 [59] 。

6. POD的预防及治疗

POD一旦发生很难有很好的办法去治疗,尤其对于老年人,必须早期识别和筛查可改变的危险因素和特定的非药物干预,系统地评估年龄以及性别差异和其他共同风险因素。同时应致力于在术后为老年人提供有效的镇痛,定期观察患者的药物不良反应,特别是阿片类药物,避免患者出现睡眠周期紊乱。此外,医疗人员应积极引导家属参与老年患者的术后康复治疗,因为与患者关系密切的人知道患者的平时状态,能够识别早期的谵妄迹象 [60] 。可以向参与老年病人的护士提供教育和培训,着眼于开发预防POD的护理干预措施。

目前对于POD的治疗主要有氟哌啶醇、奥氮平、褪黑素、右美托咪定、非甾体抗炎药(如帕瑞昔布钠)、他汀类药物等。氟哌啶醇能够有效治疗POD,也有研究发现奥氮平能作用于体内多种靶位点,主要的受体包括中枢5-HT受体、拮抗多巴胺和胆碱能受体,比氟哌啶醇表现出更轻微的精神系统及消化系统的不良反应 [61] 。右美托咪定是目前预防POD的主要药物,临床实验中发现使用右美托咪定时,同时控制其他干扰因素如血压,体温及麻醉深度等,结果显示能够有效预防50% POD的发生 [62] 。帕瑞昔布钠能够选择性地抑制体内环加氧酶-2,有一组随机对照实验纳入共904例患者,结果发现帕瑞昔布钠可以有效减少POD的发生,并且抑制炎症因子的释放,其消炎镇痛作用均明显强于一般的非甾体抗炎药 [63] 。近年来,一些研究者认为他汀类药物的神经保护作用可用于谵妄的预防,但在最新研究结果中观点不一,真正效果仍需更多高质量、大样本的试验进行验证。

7. 小结

POD是在围麻醉期常见的一种术后并发症,随着高龄患者的增多,将直接导致老年群体术后发病率和死亡率增加,严重影响患者的预后以及增加巨大的社会成本。老年患者POD的发生目前发病机制并不是很明确,还需要进一步的研究。其影响因素在国内外最新文献显示,无论自身因素或诱发因素,在整个围麻醉期基本都有了很好的验证。而对于POD的预防及治疗是临床中需要关注的重点,早期识别筛查危险因素并及时干预会更好地改善老年患者的术后恢复质量,缩短住院时间。相信未来随着高质量、充足的研究将会进一步认识POD机制及影响因素,可以形成一套围麻醉期对老年患者POD的预防治疗更加有效和完整的体系。

基金项目

陕西省自然科学基金(2019JQ-983)。

NOTES

*第一作者Email: 943546260@qq.com

#通讯作者Email: bianburong2000@163.com

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