炎症性肠病相关贫血的研究现状
Research Status of Anemia Associated with Inflammatory Bowel Disease
摘要: 炎症性肠病(IBD)是一类慢性胃肠道炎症性疾病,包括溃疡性结肠炎(UC)和罗恩病(CD),IBD并不局限于胃肠道,还可以累及全身多个系统,在全球范围内其发病率及患病率逐年上升。贫血是IBD患者一种常见且严重的并发症。IBD相关贫血的病因多种多样,其中最常见的类型是缺铁性贫血(IDA)、慢性病贫血(ACD)是IBD。IBD相关贫血的严重程度及治疗会影响患者的生活质量及疾病转归。本文从IBD相关贫血的类型、发病机制及治疗等方面作一综述。
Abstract: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) refers to a group of chronic inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, encompassing ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD). IBD is not merely restricted to the gastrointestinal system; rather, it can involve multiple systemic organs. Globally, both the incidence and prevalence of IBD have been on the rise in recent years. Anemia is a prevalent and severe complication among patients with IBD. The etiologies of IBD-related anemia are multifaceted. Among them, the most common types are iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and anemia of chronic disease (ACD) associated with IBD. The severity of IBD-related anemia and its treatment strategies significantly impact the quality of life and disease prognosis of patients. This article aims to comprehensively review various aspects of IBD-related anemia, including its types, pathogenesis, and treatment modalities.
文章引用:孙莉娟, 陈力, 李倩. 炎症性肠病相关贫血的研究现状[J]. 临床个性化医学, 2025, 4(3): 712-718. https://doi.org/10.12677/jcpm.2025.43400

1. 引言

炎症性肠病(Inflammatory Bowel Disease, IBD)是一组以胃肠道慢性炎症为特征的疾病,主要包括克罗恩病(Crohn’s disease)和溃疡性结肠炎(ulcerative colitis)。近年来,IBD的全球疾病负担显著增加,成为公共卫生领域的重要挑战。根据全球疾病负担研究(Global Burden of Disease, GBD)的最新数据,2021年全球新增IBD病例37.5万例,总病例数达383万例[1]。自1990年以来,IBD的发病率持续上升,到2019年全球已有约490万例IBD患者25,预测到2050年可能突破1000万例[2]。老年发病(≥60岁)比例逐渐增加,占新发病例的11%。IBD的高发地区从传统的欧美发达国家扩展到亚洲、非洲和拉丁美洲的新兴工业化国家[3]。例如,中国IBD发病率在1990~2021年间年均增长1.8%,印度病例数也显著上升[4]

IBD导致的伤残调整寿命年(DALYs)在2019年达620万,较1990年增长44%。患者常合并慢性呼吸道疾病(如哮喘、慢阻肺)、骨质疏松及结直肠癌风险增加[5],进一步加剧疾病负担。IBD患者普遍存在中度健康相关生活质量下降,且与医疗团队的互动不足。欧洲调查显示,40%中重度患者存在未缓解症状,治疗满意度仅33% [6]。患者自感疾病负担(PPBoD)评分与疾病活动度、并发症及心理压力显著相关。

贫血是炎症性肠病最常见的肠外表现之一,贫血对IBD患者生活质量会产生多维度影响,包括生理功能与症状负担、心理健康与社会功能、增加医疗成本及影响疾病的预后。贫血与IBD患者的焦虑、抑郁风险增加相关,可能与慢性疲劳和认知功能受损有关[7]。此外,贫血导致的工作效率下降和经济参与度降低(如缺勤率升高)进一步加剧社会功能损害。一项国内研究指出,贫血患者的疾病复发风险更高,间接影响长期生活质量[8]。还会提高医疗费用,加重经济负担。本文通过整理相关文献,对IBD相关贫血的类型、发病机制及治疗进行综述,以便更好地指导临床,改善患者预后。

2. 炎症性肠病合并贫血的流行病学

炎症性肠病(IBD)患者中贫血的患病率因研究人群、诊断标准及疾病活动性差异而呈现较大波动。全球范围内,约6%~74%的IBD患者合并贫血,CD患者因小肠病变多见,铁吸收障碍更显著,贫血发生率高于UC患者。研究显示,CD患者的贫血患病率为66.7%,而UC为32.7% [9]。此外,CD合并贫血者更易出现疲劳、认知功能下降等非特异性症状,可能与慢性炎症对铁代谢的干扰(如铁调素水平升高) [10]。亚洲地区的流行病学数据显示,贫血与生活质量下降、医疗成本增加显著相关[11]。儿童IBD患者中,CD患者贫血率更高(39% vs. UC 33%),且以中度贫血为主(55%)。成人中,女性及病程较长者贫血风险更高[12]。值得注意的是,随着疾病治疗手段的进步,贫血患病率呈下降趋势,但其作为IBD最常见的肠外表现之一,仍需引起临床重视。但在目前实际临床工作中,许多患者因并无明显不适症状,或仅出现轻微贫血表现,所以不会引起患者本人甚至临床医生的关注,以至于没有积极监测并及时进行临床干预。

3. 炎症性肠病合并贫血的主要病因分类

炎症性肠病(Inflammatory Bowel Disease, IBD)患者合并贫血的病因复杂且多因素参与,其分类主要基于病理生理机制和临床特征。主要分为:

1) 缺铁性贫血(Iron Deficiency Anemia, IDA) IDA是IBD患者贫血最常见的病因,约占所有病例的60%~80%。其机制包括:(1) 慢性失血:肠道炎症(如溃疡性结肠炎黏膜糜烂或克罗恩病肠道溃疡)导致长期隐性或显性出血。(2) 铁吸收障碍:IBD活动期肠道炎症通过上调铁调素(hepcidin)抑制十二指肠铁吸收。(3) 摄入不足:患者因腹痛、腹泻等症状导致饮食摄入减少,或主动避免含铁食物以减轻胃肠道刺激[13]。实验室特征包括低血清铁、低铁蛋白(但需注意炎症对铁蛋白的干扰)及高转铁蛋白受体(sTfR)水平。值得注意的是,IBD患者中单纯IDA较少见,常与慢性病性贫血共存(混合型贫血) [14]

2) 慢性病性贫血(Anemia of Chronic Disease, ACD) ACD是IBD贫血的第二大病因,由慢性炎症介导的免疫代谢紊乱引起,其特征包括:(1) 铁代谢异常:炎症因子(如IL-6)上调肝细胞合成铁调素(hepcidin),导致铁在巨噬细胞和肝细胞中潴留,限制铁释放至血液循环。(2) 红细胞生成抑制:促炎细胞因子(TNF-α、IFN-γ)直接抑制骨髓造血功能,并降低促红细胞生成素(EPO)反应性[15]。(3) 红细胞寿命缩短:氧化应激和炎症微环境加速红细胞破坏1833。实验室表现为正细胞正色素性贫血,血清铁降低但铁蛋白正常或升高(因炎症导致铁蛋白作为急性期反应蛋白升高) [12]

3) 混合型贫血(IDA + ACD),约20%~30%的IBD患者贫血表现为IDA与ACD共存。此类贫血的诊断具有挑战性,需结合多参数:(1) 铁调素水平:铁调素升高提示ACD,而低铁储存(如sTfR升高)提示IDA [16]。(2) 炎症标志物:C反应蛋白(CRP)和IL-6水平与ACD严重程度相关。(3) 铁蛋白临界值修正:在IBD活动期,铁蛋白<100 μg/L可诊断IDA (通常铁蛋白<30 μg/L提示IDA,但炎症会抬高铁蛋白水平) [10]

4) 其他病因(1) 维生素B12和叶酸缺乏:回肠病变(克罗恩病)或手术切除导致维生素B12吸收障碍;慢性腹泻或甲氨蝶呤使用可致叶酸缺乏。(2) 药物相关性贫血:硫唑嘌呤和柳氮磺胺吡啶可能引发骨髓抑制或溶血[17]。(3) 溶血性贫血:罕见,可能与自身免疫反应或感染并发症相关。(4) 慢性肾病相关贫血:IBD合并肾损伤时EPO生成减少[18]

5) 特殊人群的病因特征(1) 儿童IBD患者:贫血患病率高达36%,以中度贫血为主,铁缺乏和炎症双重作用显著[10]。(2) 生物制剂治疗患者:抗TNF药物可能通过控制炎症间接改善ACD,但对IDA无直接作用[17]

4. 炎症性肠病合并贫血的分子机制

炎症性肠病合并贫血不仅加重患者疲劳、认知功能下降和生活质量恶化,还与疾病活动度、住院时间延长及治疗反应降低密切相关[9]。其病因复杂,以铁缺乏性贫血(IDA)和慢性病性贫血(ACD)为主,两者占比超过80% [12]。其主要的分子机制为:

1) 铁代谢失调的核心机制(1)铁吸收与转运障碍IBD患者肠道慢性炎症导致铁吸收关键蛋白(如二价金属转运蛋白DMT1、铁转运蛋白Ferroportin)表达异常。研究显示,IBD风险基因PTPN2 (蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶非受体型2)的突变会通过下调铁稳态信号通路,直接抑制铁代谢相关蛋白的合成,导致血清和组织铁水平下降[19]。敲除PTPN2的小鼠模型进一步证实了该基因对铁调素(hepcidin)的上调作用,加剧铁限制性红细胞生成。(2) 铁调素(Hepcidin)的调控作用铁调素是铁代谢的核心调控因子,其表达受炎症因子(如IL-6)和铁状态双重调节。在IBD中,慢性炎症通过JAK2/STAT3通路激活肝细胞铁调素合成,导致肠道铁吸收受抑和巨噬细胞铁滞留[19]。高铁调素水平还直接抑制促红细胞生成素(EPO)的活性,进一步加重贫血[20]。(3) 铁丢失与利用障碍IBD患者因肠道溃疡和黏膜损伤常伴随慢性隐性失血,而炎症微环境中的活性氧(ROS)和促炎因子(如TNF-α)会加速铁从循环中消耗,形成“铁陷缺–炎症–贫血”的恶性循环[18]

2) 炎症介导的贫血机制

(1) 慢性炎症对红细胞生成的抑制IBD患者中,促炎因子(IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α)通过抑制EPO受体信号和红系祖细胞分化,直接阻碍红细胞生成。同时,炎症诱导的骨髓EPO抵抗进一步加剧贫血[15]。(2) 维生素代谢异常IBD患者的肠道吸收功能障碍可导致维生素B12和叶酸缺乏,而炎症本身也会加速维生素B12的消耗,导致巨幼细胞性贫血[18]。此外,某些药物(如柳氮磺吡啶)可能干扰叶酸代谢,加重贫血风险。

3) 肠道屏障损伤与贫血的关联IBD患者肠上皮屏障完整性破坏,铁过载的肠上皮细胞通过铁死亡(ferroptosis)途径加速凋亡,释放游离铁并激活炎症小体(如NLRP3),形成促炎与缺铁并存的微环境[21]。动物模型显示,结肠铁过载会加剧肠道炎症和贫血程度,提示铁稳态失衡与IBD病理的相互促进作用[21]

5. 炎症性肠病合并贫血的临床管理策略

1) 筛查:贫血常被漏诊,因症状隐匿(如疲劳、呼吸困难)且缺乏标准化筛查流程。国际指南建议所有IBD患者定期筛查血红蛋白(Hb)、铁代谢参数(血清铁、铁蛋白、转铁蛋白饱和度)及炎症标志物(CRP) [22]。目前筛查现状:中国台湾地区研究显示,95.3%克罗恩病(CD)和87.9%溃疡性结肠炎(UC)患者接受贫血筛查,但诊断后平均筛查延迟达122~216天666。意大利多中心研究(RIDART I)发现,仅13.6%的IBD患者被诊断为贫血,且治疗率不足25% [23]

2) 诊断流程与实验室评估

(1) 初步评估:血红蛋白阈值:成人男性<13 g/dL、女性<12 g/dL,儿童依据年龄调整3624;铁代谢指标:血清铁蛋白<30 ng/mL提示IDA,但需注意炎症状态下铁蛋白可能假性升高(建议结合CRP或转铁蛋白受体/铁蛋白比值) 5122323。铁调素(hepcidin):作为新兴生物标志物,可区分IDA (低水平)、ACD (高水平)及混合型贫血[24]

(2) 鉴别诊断:铁蛋白<100 ng/mL或转铁蛋白饱和度<20%支持IDA;铁蛋白>100 ng/mL且炎症活动时倾向ACD;混合型贫血:需结合铁调素及骨髓铁染色[20];维生素缺乏:检测血清维生素B12和叶酸水平,尤其回肠受累或长期使用柳氮磺吡啶者[19]

(3) 特殊人群:对于儿童患者,贫血筛查率低且缺乏儿科特异性指南,需关注生长发育迟缓及认知功能影响[25];对于活动期IBD,炎症可能掩盖铁缺乏,建议动态监测铁代谢参数

6. 治疗原则与策略

1) 治疗相关的分子机制(a)铁剂治疗的分子靶点静脉铁剂(如羧基麦芽糖铁)可绕过铁调素介导的肠道吸收抑制,直接补充铁储备。新型铁调素抑制剂(如单克隆抗体)在动物模型中显示出逆转炎症性低铁血症的潜力,但仍需临床验证[15]。(b) 抗炎治疗对贫血的改善作用抗TNF-α疗法(如英夫利昔单抗)可通过降低IL-6和铁调素水平,间接改善铁代谢和EPO反应性[26]。此外,控制IBD活动度可减少肠道失血和铁丢失,是贫血管理的基石。

2) 缺铁性贫血(IDA)的治疗:(1) 口服铁剂:适用于轻度贫血、疾病缓解期且无肠道吸收障碍者,但需注意胃肠道副作用(如腹痛、腹泻) [27]。(2) 静脉铁剂:推荐用于中重度贫血、活动期IBD、口服铁剂不耐受或无效者。新型制剂(如羧基麦芽糖铁、异麦芽糖酐铁)安全性高,可快速纠正铁储备[27]。研究显示,静脉铁剂较口服更有效改善血红蛋白水平及生活质量。

3) 慢性病性贫血(ACD)的治疗:(1) 控制炎症:抗TNF生物制剂(如英夫利昔单抗)可降低炎症因子水平,间接改善铁代谢[22]。(2) 辅助治疗:对于合并IDA的ACD,需联合静脉补铁;重组促红细胞生成素(EPO)可用于难治性病例,但证据有限[15]

4) 维生素缺乏相关贫血:维生素B12缺乏者需肌注补充(回肠切除或严重炎症时);叶酸缺乏者口服补充[19]

5) 输血治疗:仅限急性严重贫血(Hb < 6 g/dL)或血流动力学不稳定者,需避免过度输血导致的铁过载[17]

6) 治疗监测与长期管理:加强实验室监测:每2~4周检测血红蛋白、铁蛋白及转铁蛋白饱和度,直至目标值(Hb ≥ 12 g/dL,铁蛋白>100 μg/L);注意复发预防:IBD活动期患者需定期筛查贫血,维持静脉铁剂每3~6个月补充;还需增加多学科协作,结合胃肠科、血液科及营养科,优化个体化治疗方案[28]

7. 挑战与未来方向

临床实践差距:目前诊断的局限性:现有生物标志物(如铁蛋白)在炎症状态下可靠性不足,需开发新型指标(如PTPN2基因表达、铁调素联合检测) [17]。需推广标准化筛查流程(如年度Hb检测)并加强多学科协作(胃肠科、血液科)以提高诊断率。此外,患者的治疗依从性有待提高,约25%~40%患者未接受规范治疗,需加强指南宣教及患者教育[12]。当前研究对IBD合并贫血的分子机制仍存在以下挑战:(1) 铁调素与EPO信号交互作用的时空特异性;(2) 基因多态性(如PTPN2、HFE)对个体化贫血风险的预测价值;(3) 铁死亡在IBD贫血中的具体贡献[29]。未来需结合多组学技术(如血清蛋白质组学、单细胞转录组学)揭示更精确的调控网络,并开发针对铁代谢–炎症轴的双重靶向疗法[17]

8. 小结

炎症性肠病相关性贫血是一个十分复杂的临床问题,贫血作为IBD的“沉默共病”,其机制复杂,涉及铁元素缺乏、慢性炎症、维生素缺乏等多种因素,通过生理、心理及社会经济多维度侵蚀患者生活质量,未来需加强早期筛查、规范分层治疗,并关注铁代谢与炎症的复杂交互,以实现从“纠正贫血”到“改善整体预后”的跨越。并需深入探讨IBD相关贫血的具体发病机制,特别是炎症因子在铁代谢和红细胞生成中的作用,以便根据患者的具体情况(如贫血类型、炎症状态等)制订个性化的治疗方案。通过合理的诊断和治疗,改善IBD患者的贫血状况,并提高患者对IBD及其相关贫血的认识,促进自我管理能力,改善生活方式和饮食习惯,从而提高患者的生活质量。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

参考文献

[1] Danpanichkul, P., Duangsonk, K., Ho, A.H.Y., et al. (2025) Disproportionately Increasing Incidence of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Female Patients and the Elderly: An Update Analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. The American Journal of Gastroenterology, 120, 675-680.
https://doi.org/10.14309/ajg.0000000000003143
[2] Wang, S., Dong, Z. and Wan, X. (2024) Global, Regional, and National Burden of Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Its Associated Anemia, 1990 to 2019 and Predictions to 2050: An Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Autoimmunity Reviews, 23, Article 103498.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2023.103498
[3] Aniwan, S., Santiago, P., Loftus, E.V. and Park, S.H. (2022) The Epidemiology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Asia and Asian Immigrants to Western Countries. United European Gastroenterology Journal, 10, 1063-1076.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ueg2.12350
[4] Giri, S., Jena, A., Kumar-M, P., Muniswamy, J.R., Nath, P. and Sharma, V. (2025) Burden of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in India: Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study from 1990 to 2019. Intestinal Research. Ahead-of Print.
https://doi.org/10.5217/ir.2024.00134
[5] Katayama, E.S., Woldesenbet, S., Tsilimigras, D., Munir, M.M., Endo, Y., Huang, E., et al. (2024) Inflammatory Bowel Disease-Associated Colorectal Cancer Negatively Affects Surgery Outcomes and Health Care Costs. Surgery, 176, 32-37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2024.03.005
[6] Burisch, J., Hart, A., Sturm, A., et al. (2025) Residual Disease Burden Among European Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Real-World Survey. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 31, 411-424.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ibd/izae119
[7] Shiratori, Y., Hutfless, S., Rateb, G. and Fukuda K. (2023) The Burden of Gastrointestinal Diseases in Japan, 1990-2019, and Projections for 2035. JGH Open, 7, 221-227.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgh3.12883
[8] Aebisher, D., Bartusik-Aebisher, D., Przygórzewska, A., Oleś, P., Woźnicki, P. and Kawczyk-Krupka, A. (2024) Key Interleukins in Inflammatory Bowel Disease-A Review of Recent Studies. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26, Article 121.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26010121
[9] Woźniak, M., Borkowska, A., Jastrzębska, M., Sochal, M., Małecka-Wojciesko, E. and Talar-Wojnarowska, R. (2023) Clinical and Laboratory Characteristics of Anaemia in Hospitalized Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 12, Article 2447.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12072447
[10] D’Arcangelo, G., Brecciaroli, M., Gagliostro, G., Auletta, D., Pellegrino, S., Arrigo, S., et al. (2025) Prevalence and Trend of Anemia in Children with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A National Register‐Based Cohort Study. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 80, 967-978.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jpn3.70029
[11] Maas, L.A., Krishna, M. and Parian, A.M. (2023) Ironing It All Out: A Comprehensive Review of Iron Deficiency Anemia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients. Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 68, 357-369.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-022-07599-1
[12] Xue, M., Chen, J., Zheng, W., Liu, Y., Lin, Y. and Wang, C. (2023) Clinical Characteristics and Quality of Life in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease-Associated Anemia in Southeast China. European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 35, 275-284.
https://doi.org/10.1097/meg.0000000000002511
[13] Hsiao, P., Weng, M., Chang, C., Huang, L., Tung, C., Leong, Y., et al. (2023) Anemia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Course Is Associated with Patients’ Worse Outcome. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 122, 549-556.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfma.2022.11.004
[14] Stratmann, K., Hentschel, V., Zeuzem, S., Blumenstein, I. and Klaus, J. (2024) Eisensupplementation bei patienten mit chronisch-entzündlicher Darmerkrankung: Empfehlungen zur praxisnahen Vorgehensweise. Zeitschrift für Gastroenterologie, 62, 1389-1396.
https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2274-1610
[15] Marques, O., Weiss, G. and Muckenthaler, M.U. (2022) The Role of Iron in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases: From Mechanisms to Treatment Options in Anemia of Inflammation. Blood, 140, 2011-2023.
https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2021013472
[16] Lei, H., Shawki, A., Santos, A.N., et al. (2025) PTPN2 Regulates Iron Handling Protein Expression in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients and Prevents Iron Deficiency in Mice. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26, Article 3356.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26073356
[17] Petrović, S., Tarabar, D., Ćujić, D., et al. (2024) A Prospective Observational Study Analyzing the Diagnostic Value of Hepcidin-25 for Anemia in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25, Article 3564.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25073564
[18] Ferrari, F., Carini, M., Zanella, I., et al. (2024) Potential Diagnostic Role of Hepcidin in Anemic Patients Affected by Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review. Diagnostics, 14, Article 375.
https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14040375
[19] Cappellini, M.D., Scaramellini, N. and Motta, I. (2023) Iron Status in Chronic Inflammatory Disease: Therapeutic Implications. Polish Archives of Internal Medicine, 133, Article 16430.
https://doi.org/10.20452/pamw.16430
[20] Dutta, A.K., Chinthala, H., George, J.T., Thomas, D.M. and Joseph Joseph, A. (2025) Anemia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease—A Comprehensive Review. Indian Journal of Gastroenterology.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12664-024-01735-7
[21] Xiao, P., Cai, X., Zhang, Z., et al. (2024) Butyrate Prevents the Pathogenic Anemia-Inflammation Circuit by Facilitating Macrophage Iron Export. Advanced Science, 11, Article e2306571.
https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202306571
[22] Wang, J., Guay, H. and Chang, D. (2024) Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis Share 2 Molecular Subtypes with Different Mechanisms and Drug Responses. Journal of Crohns and Colitis, 19, jjae152.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjae152
[23] Wang, M., Zheng, C., Zhou, F., et al. (2025) Iron and Inflammatory Cytokines Synergistically Induce Colonic Epithelial Cell Ferroptosis in Colitis. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 40, 666-676.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jgh.16826
[24] Bergamaschi, G., Castiglione, F., D’Incà, R., et al. (2024) Follow-up Evaluation and Management of Anemia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Study by the Italian Group for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IG-IBD). Digestive and Liver Disease, 56, 1483-1489.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2024.01.176
[25] Martinelli, M., Fioretti, M.T., Aloi, M., et al. (2024) Diagnosis and Management of Anemia in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Clinical Practice Guidelines on Behalf of the SIGENP IBD Working Group. Digestive and Liver Disease, 56, 1257-1269.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2024.02.016
[26] Okuyucu, M., Avcioğlu, U., Şenel, T. and Ustaoğlu, M. (2022) Investigation of the Effects of Anti-TNF Agents on Hemoglobin Levels in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Medicine, 101, e30118.
https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000030118
[27] Lindgren, S.C., Strid, H., Hjortswang, H., Manxhuka, B., Nanu, N. and Pollock, R.F. (2025) A Swedish Cost-Utility Analysis of Ferric Derisomaltose versus Ferric Carboxymaltose in the Treatment of Iron Deficiency Anemia in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Journal of Medical Economics, 28, 567-575.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13696998.2025.2487359
[28] Iqbal, T.H., Kennedy, N., Dhar, A., Ahmed, W. and Pollock, R.F. (2024) Cost-Utility Analysis of Ferric Derisomaltose versus Ferric Carboxymaltose in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Iron Deficiency Anemia in England. Journal of Medical Economics, 27, 392-403.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13696998.2024.2313932
[29] Ma, B., Hu, X., Ai, X. and Zhang, Y. (2024) Research Progress of Ferroptosis and Inflammatory Bowel Disease. BioMetals, 37, 1063.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-024-00614-0