老年阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停相关发病机制的研究进展
Research Progress in the Pathogenesis of Obstructive Sleep Apnea in the Elderly
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2024.1492445, PDF, HTML, XML,    科研立项经费支持
作者: 陈 宇, 李 兵*:重庆医科大学附属第一医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科,重庆
关键词: 老年阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征发病机制Elderly Obstructive Sleep Apnea Pathogenesis
摘要: 睡眠呼吸障碍(sleep disordered breathing, SDB)是老年人群中仅次于失眠的第二大睡眠障碍疾病,其中以阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停(obstructive sleep apnea, OSA)最为常见。OSA是指睡眠过程中反复出现呼吸暂停和低通气,引起多器官功能损伤的临床综合征。OSA患病率随年龄增长而增加,好发于老年人,可严重降低老年人生活质量。随着人口老龄化进程加剧,老年OSA正引发全社会关注。目前,国内关于老年OSA具体发病机制的相关研究较少,探讨老年OSA的危险因素及发病机制,明确衰老在OSA发病中的作用及机制有望为老年OSA患者未来的个体化治疗提供依据。
Abstract: Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) is the second to the insomnia sleep disorders in the elderly diseases, among them with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is the most common. OSA refers to the clinical syndrome of multiple organ function impairment caused by repeated apnea and hypopnea during sleep. The prevalence of OSA increases with age and tends to occur in the elderly, which can seriously reduce the quality of life of the elderly. With the acceleration of population aging process, elderly OSA is attracting the attention of the whole society. At present, there are few relevant studies on the specific pathogenesis of elderly OSA in China. To explore the risk factors and pathogenesis of elderly OSA, and clarify the role and mechanism of aging in the pathogenesis of OSA is expected to provide a basis for future individualized treatment of elderly OSA patients.
文章引用:陈宇, 李兵. 老年阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停相关发病机制的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2024, 14(9): 177-184. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2024.1492445

1. 引言

睡眠呼吸障碍(sleep disordered breathing, SDB)是一类常见的睡眠疾病,包括OSA、中枢性睡眠呼吸暂停(CSA),以及与睡眠有关的低通气和低氧血症。其中,OSA是最常见的睡眠呼吸障碍,其特征是睡眠时上气道完全或部分塌陷,导致睡眠时打鼾、呼吸暂停和日间嗜睡的一组临床综合征。流行病学显示[1],人群中OSA患病率估计为46%,患病率随年龄的增长而持续增加,约65岁后趋于平稳[2],在老年人群中男女患病率分别达90%和78% [3]。OSA可引发心血管、代谢等多系统并发症,重度OSA患者的高血压患病率高达63.6% [4] [5],此外OSA可使卒中风险增加一倍,加重老年人的认知障碍[6] [7],为老年患者带来沉重的经济社会负担,严重降低生活质量。

尽管OSA在老年人中很常见,但由于老年患者症状不典型、主诉不明确、并发症多,为临床诊治带来困难,实际临床中仍有大部分老年患者未得到有效诊治。随着全球人口老龄化,老年OSA的比例逐渐增加,关注老年人健康问题和提高其生活质量成为必然趋势。目前,老年OSA已成为一个备受关注的公共卫生问题。然而,老年OSA的发病机制十分复杂,衰老带来的生理改变与OSA本身发病机制之间的作用尚不完全清楚,本文将围绕老年OSA的主要危险因素及发病机制作一综述。

2. 危险因素

目前,许多研究表明与老年OSA的发生发展相关的众多危险因素,包括性别、年龄、肥胖、家族史、基础内科疾病、长期烟酒史、长期服用药物史等相关因素[8]-[10]。本文就其中主要危险因素进行分析,旨在为早期识别老年OSA患者提供参考。

2.1. 性别

随着年龄的增长,女性OSA患病率显著增加,老年OSA在性别间的差异不再明显。

众所周知,男性是OSA的主要危险因子,在一般人群中,OSA的男女比例在3:1至5:1之间,在一些临床群体中,比例可高达8:1至10:1,在中年OSA群体中性别差异十分显著[11]。OSA患病率随着年龄的增长而增长,男性高峰为55岁,而女性高峰出现在65岁[12]。伴随着衰老,OSA患病率的性别间的差异逐渐缩小。造成老年OSA患者性别差异的机制可能与性别间颅面部形态、咽部解剖差异、激素水平及脂肪分布差异等多因素相关。

其中,绝经被认为是老年女性OSA的重要危险因素,激素水平的变化是导致绝经后老年女性OSA患病率明显上升的主要原因。有研究表明女性性激素可刺激咽部扩张肌——颏舌肌,对于保持上气道的通畅有积极作用,而颏舌肌的活动在绝经后比绝经前明显减弱,且在性激素替代治疗两周后其活动显著增加[13] [14]。此外,绝经后激素的变化将导致脂质代谢改变,体重更易增加,身体脂肪重新分配到了上半身(包括颈部),上述变化均可增加OSA患病风险[15] [16]。这提示老年女性的OSA患病率增加可能与绝经后体内激素的变化密切相关。除此之外,衰老带来的解剖改变似乎也在老年女性中更明显。伴随着衰老,人体咽部气道变长、咽周围骨骼改变可导致气道塌陷易感性增加,大量研究均表明上述改变在女性中更为显著[14] [17]

随着年龄增长,老年女性OSA风险显著增加,患病率明显上升。然而,研究却发现老年女性OSA患者的打鼾、困倦、嗜睡等OSA典型症状仍然不如男性明显[18] [19],且绝经后女性的OSA症状易被误认为是更年期症状,这导致临床上老年女性OSA患者往往容易被忽视,造成漏诊。因此,在临床中更应关注老年女性的发病情况,提高老年患者对OSA疾病的认识,并建议对高危人群进行常规筛查。

2.2. 肥胖

肥胖是OSA发病的主要危险因素,在老年人群中肥胖与OSA仍然密切相关。

流行病学统计至少70%的OSA患者为肥胖,肥胖与OSA共存对心血管和代谢综合征的影响复杂且严重得多[20]。目前认为,肥胖与OSA的风险密切相关的机制包括:① 咽部肌肉内脂肪含量的增加使得肌肉张力下降;② 咽侧壁脂肪的堆积可导致咽部上气道变窄;③ 腹部脂肪的堆积可对胸壁及气道产生牵引力同时影响通气[21]-[24]

在老年人群中,衰老往往伴随着基础代谢率及体力等方面的下降,导致体重的增加及肥胖的发生。此外,全身脂肪量会随着年龄的增长而增加,在70岁时达到顶峰[25]。以上因素的共同作用下,老年患OSA的风险上升。在老年OSA患者与肥胖相关指标的评估中,BMI、颈围、腹围等相关指标备受关注。既往研究表明老年OSA的风险随BMI的增加而增加,严重程度与颈围呈显著正相关[26] [27]。Degache等人提出BMI、NC等指标有助于老年OSA的诊断,此外,由于老年患者体内脂肪的重新分布,向心性肥胖被认为是老年OSA严重程度的重要预后因素[21]

随着年龄的增长,肥胖仍然在老年OSA发病中发挥着重要作用,这提示对于老年人群的体重管理仍应关注,而对于肥胖老年OSA患者来说,减重治疗仍为重要。

2.3. 并发症

目前认为OSA是一种全身性疾病,常伴有心血管、代谢、呼吸和神经精神等多系统并发症,且越来越多证据表明OSA与合并症之间存在双向关系[10]。心血管疾病、代谢综合征可能是老年OSA的危险因素,通过各种病理机制使得OSA风险增加。

老年代谢综合征患者存在不同程度的代谢紊乱,可能通过肌肉中脂质的增加和肌肉中炎症反应导致上气道骨骼肌功能障碍,从而介导OSA的发生[28]。而心血管疾病同样被认为是老年OSA的危险因素,其机制与老年患者交感神经功能异常及肾素–血管紧张素–醛固酮系统(RAAS)功能障碍等密切相关[10] [29] [30]

衰老往往伴随着基础代谢减弱,机体各器官功能的逐渐衰弱,老年人常合并高血压、糖尿病等多种基础疾病[31]。基于OSA与相关并发症的双向关系,我们认为其可能在老年患者中形成恶性循环,从而加重对老年患者的影响。因此,在老年OSA患者的诊治过程中,应更加关注患者全身情况。

3. 发病机制

OSA的发病涉及解剖和非解剖多方面机制,是多重因素共同作用的结果。Eckert等人在2013年首次提出关于OSA的发病机制模型,即PALM模型,其中包括:上呼吸道临界闭合压力(Pcrit, P) (即上气道塌陷性),低觉醒阈值(arousal threshold, A)、高环路增益(loop gain, L)和上气道肌肉反应性(muscle responsiveness, M) [32]。我们将探讨PALM模型四方面与衰老的关系,进一步明确老年OSA的具体发病机制。

3.1. 上气道塌陷

上气道的塌陷在OSA发病中起关键作用,其与解剖结构、咽肌功能等多因素密切相关,随着年龄的增长上呼吸道塌陷性和咽阻力随之增加。

人体的咽部由20多块肌肉组成,可分为鼻咽、腭咽、口咽和下咽四个部分。由于舌骨不与其他骨骼结构相连,使咽部气道缺乏骨性结构支撑,成为整个上呼吸道中唯一没有骨骼和软组织支撑的区域,容易塌陷。因此,咽部成为OSA患者最常见的气道阻塞平面。实际上,OSA患者上气道塌陷受多种解剖因素的影响,包括咽部长度、舌骨的位置、软腭与舌的尺寸及功能等[33]-[35]

对于老年群体,衰老往往伴随着上述解剖因素的生理性改变,目前认为可能存在与年龄相关的气道塌陷易感性。大量研究表明,随着年龄的增长,老年人咽部周围骨骼逐渐向外侧生长,舌骨水平逐渐下降,咽部及软腭长度逐渐增加,上气道管腔缩小[17] [36]。这些与衰老相关的上气道解剖变化将导致气道通气阻力增加,使得老年人上气道更易塌陷。

此外,随着年龄增长,咽旁脂肪的增加在OSA的发病中也同样重要。虽然肥胖是OSA的主要危险因子,但研究表明,衰老伴随的咽旁脂肪沉积的增加与BMI无关[17]。国内同样报道在我国的老年OSA患者中,衰老与咽旁脂肪体积及软腭长度这两个指标都有显著的正相关[37]。这提示衰老相关的的咽旁脂肪增加可能加重老年人上气道的塌陷易感性,使得OSA发生风险增加。

3.2. 咽肌功能异常

实际上,OSA患者上气道的塌陷除了解剖因素外,咽部肌肉的功能异常也发挥着重要作用。衰老伴随的上气道肌肉神经功能及负压反射的减弱可增加上气道的塌陷易感性。

随着年龄的增长,上气道肌肉神经功能发生改变,肌肉中IIa类纤维减少,IIb类纤维增多,导致肌肉的张力下降,咽部软组织弹性减弱,更易发生塌陷[38]。咽部的负压反射是指在机体受到有害刺激时上气道扩张肌为补偿塌陷而发生的活动,这种反射是动物和人类维持咽通畅的主要机制。其中,颏舌肌是人体主要的咽扩张肌,其功能的正常发挥对于维持气道通畅十分重要[39]。然而,随着年龄的增长,老年人咽部肌肉的功能逐渐减退,咽肌反射的敏感性逐渐降低,颏舌肌对于缺氧的反应也显著降低[17] [40]-[42]。这种衰老带来的保护性反射的减弱或丧失可能是导致老年患者咽部肌肉功能减退,从而引起上气道塌陷的重要机制。

3.3. 睡眠结构紊乱

睡眠分为非快速眼动期(NREM)和快速眼动期(REM),其中NREM包括N1 (清醒到睡眠的过度),N2 (浅睡眠),N3 (深睡眠,慢波睡眠,即SWS)三个阶段,各睡眠阶段的规律交替对于维持良好的睡眠状态至关重要,睡眠结构的紊乱将导致OSA等睡眠障碍疾病的发生。

随着年龄的增长,睡眠模式及结构发生重要变化。大量动物及人体研究表明,衰老与机体启动和维持睡眠的能力下降有关,随着年龄增长,老年人睡眠呈现以下特点:① 睡眠总时间减少,睡眠效率下降;② 睡眠更加碎片化;③ 睡眠潜伏期(即入睡时间)变长,N1、N2增多;④ 睡眠剥夺后的恢复性睡眠减少,导致睡眠稳态破坏;⑤ 慢波睡眠的减少,即N3明显减少[43]-[45]。这些与衰老相关的睡眠紊乱与OSA的发生密切相关,其可能与衰老相关的神经变性以及皮质醇激素变化有关。此外,随着年龄的增长,位于下丘脑视交叉上核(SCN)的昼夜节律器功能减弱和敏感性降低[46],以及人体有助于促进和维持睡眠的褪黑素将分泌减少[47] [48],以上衰老伴随的生理变化将引发睡眠周期紊乱,导致OSA等睡眠障碍相关疾病在老年人中发病增加。

此外,觉醒阈值的降低,即睡眠中唤醒刺激的敏感性增加在OSA的发病中也发挥着重要作用,但随着年龄的增长觉醒阈值是否变化,目前仍存在争议。有几项针对老年人的研究表明,与年轻人相比,老年人的觉醒阈值明显降低,老年人在睡眠中更易醒来[44] [49]。但也有学者认为觉醒阈值与年龄差异无关,衰老对觉醒阈值的影响几乎可以忽略不计[50] [51]。觉醒阈值的变化是否在老年OSA发病中发挥作用,仍不清楚,未来仍需大样本随机对照研究。

3.4. 环路增益

环路增益(Loop Gain, LG)的改变在OSA发病中起重要作用,而在老年OSA发病中LG的具体贡献尚不明确。

LG用于描述机体负反馈系统(如呼吸调控)的稳定性,包括机体控制器增益(即对CO2的通气反应)、效应增益(通气变化时的血气反应)及反馈增益(反馈信号传达至控制器的速度)。正常情况下,化学感受器能够及时识别微小的PCO2变化,从而维持机体稳定的通气。脑部和肺之间这种严格、迅速的负反馈系统,对于机体的稳定通气至关重要[52]

OSA患者常表现为LG增高,这意味着机体呼吸控制系统的不稳定,对于体内微小的CO2变化即可产生较大的通气补偿,排出较多的CO2,导致机体CO2储备减少,而CAPA可有效逆转上述改变[32] [53]。然而令人意外的是,衰老可能伴随着LG的降低。既往多项研究表明无论针对健康人群或OSA患者,相比年轻受试组,老年群体的LG均下降[51] [54],这提示机体的呼吸控制系统似乎不会随着年龄的增长而变得不稳定。但是也有学者持反对意见,Chowdhuri等人则认为相比年轻人,老年人在NREM期呼吸更加不稳定,表现为LG的增高,还可导致老年人睡眠时中枢性呼吸暂停增加[55]

目前,虽然普遍认为LG的紊乱在OSA发病中发挥重要作用,但其作用对于不同年龄段人群来说,可能存在较大差异,衰老伴随的LG具体改变及相关机制仍待进一步研究。

4. 治疗

老年OSA的治疗包括生活方式管理(如戒烟戒酒,体重管理等)、手术治疗及保守治疗。由于老年患者往往基础疾病多,手术风险高,目前以保守治疗为主。持续气道正压通气(CPAP)是老年OSA首选也是最有效的治疗方法。研究表明,CAPA治疗可有效改善老年OSA患者的认知功能[56],降低因心力衰竭和中风引发的心血管疾病死亡率[57]。尽管CPAP是有效的治疗方法,但老年患者常因老年独居、认知障碍、慢性疼痛及牙齿脱落等问题导致CAPA依从性差,从而影响治疗效果[58] [59]。老年OSA患者对于CAPA的依从性仍是个值得关注的问题。目前CAPA的相关设备主要针对中年人设计,未来是否应将老年患者相关生理因素考虑在内,使得CAPA更加简化,更加适用于老年人,提高老年患者使用的舒适度,进而提高依从性,这仍然是个值得关注的问题。

5. 总结与展望

老年OSA发病率高,临床症状常与老龄退化性表现相混淆,为临床诊治带来难度,极易漏诊和误诊,老年OSA患者需要社会给予更多的关注,建议对绝经后伴有睡眠障碍的老年女性应常规筛查,尽早诊疗。此外,关注老年人的体重管理,对于老年OSA患者也应关注其全身情况。

目前,老年OSA的具体发病机制仍不清楚,关于衰老带来的生理变化与OSA本身发病机制(PALM模型)之间的重叠作用未来还需进一步研究。关于老年OSA发病机制的探讨,有望在将来确定每一位老年患者的OSA生理内型特征,为老年患者实现个体化治疗提供依据。

基金项目

重庆市自然科学基金项目(项目编号:2022NSCQ-MSX0935)。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

参考文献

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